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A  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  EDUCATION 


THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 

NEW  YORK   •   BOSTON  •   CHICAGO 
DALLAS  •   SAN    FRANCISCO 

MACMILLAN  &  CO ,  LIMITED 

LONDON  •    BOMBAY  •  CALCUTTA 
MELBOURNE 

THE  MACMILLAN  CO   OF  CANADA,  Lm 

TORONTO 


CYCLOPEDIA  OF   EDUCATION 


EDITED  BY 

PAUL  MONROE,  PH.D. 

PROFESSOR   OF    THE    HISIOKY    OF    KDUCATION,    TKACIIER8   COLLEGE 
COJ.UMHIA    UNIVERSITY 


WITH  THE  ASSISTANCE  OF  DEPARTMENTAL  EDITOES 

AND 

MORE  THAN   ONE   THOUSAND   INDIVIDUAL  CONTRIBUTORS 


VOLUME   THREE 


THE    MACMILLAN    COMPANY 
1926 


COPYRIGHT,  1912, 
BY  THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY. 


Set  up  and   electrotyped      Published   October,   1912 
Reprinted  May,   1914;   August,  1918.   February,   1925; 
November,   1926 


A  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  EDUCATION 

EDITED   BV 

PAUL   MONROE,   PH.D. 

PROFESSOR   OF    THE    HISTORY    OF   EDUCATION,    TLACHER8  COLLEGE 
COLUMBIA     UNINLR8ITY 


DEPARTMENTAL  EDITORS 


W 


ELMER  E.  BROWN,  PH.D.,  LL.D.  .     President  of  New  York  University.  HIGHER  AND 

SECONDARY 
EDUCATION 

EDWARD  F.  BUCHNER,  PH.D.  .     .     Professor  of  Education  and  Philoso-  BIOGRAPHY, 

phy,   Johns    Hopkins    University,  PHILOSOPHY 
Baltimore,  Md. 

WILLIAM  H.  BURNHAM,  PH.D.     .     Professor   of    Pedagogy   and    School  HYGIENE 

Hygiene,  Claik  University,  Worces- 
ter, Mass. 

GABRIEL  COMPAYRE Inspector  General  of  Public  Instruc-  EDUCATION  IN 

tion,  Paris,   Member  of  the  Insti-  FRANCE 
tute  of  France. 

ELLWOOD  P.  CUBBERLEY,  Pn.D.    .     Head   of   Department  of  Education,  EDUCATIONAL 

Leland  Stanford  Junior  University,  ADMINISTRATION 
Stanford  University,  Cal. 

JOHN  DKWEY,  PH.D.,  LL.D.     .     .     Professor    of    Philosophy,   Columbia  PHILOSOPHY  OF 

University,  New  York  City.  EDUCATION 

CHARLES  H.  JUDD,  PH.D.,  LL.D.  .     Director   School   of   Education,   Uni  PSYCHOLOGY 

veisity  of  Chicago,  Chicago,  111. 

ARTHUR  F.   LEACH Chanty   Commissioner    for   England  MIDDLE  AGES, 

and  Wales,  St.  James,  London.  REFORMATION 

WILL  S.  MONROE,  A.B Professor  of  Psychology  and  History  BIOGRAPHY, 

of  Education,  Montclair  State  Nor-  AMERICAN 
mal  School,  Montclair,  N.J. 

J.  E.  G.  DE  MONTMORENCY,  M.A.,  LL.B.  BamstPi-at-Law,  London  ;  Assist-  HISTORY  OF 

ant  Editor,  The  (Contemporary  Re-  EDUCATIONAL 

new.  ADMINISTRATION 

AViLHKLM  MUNCH,  Pn.D.     .     .     .     Late  Professor  of  Pedagogy,  Univer-  EDUCATION  IN 

sity  of  Berlin,  Berlin,  Germany.  GERMANY 

ANNA  TOLMAN  SMITH     ....     Specialist,  Bureau  of  Education,  Wash-  NATIONAL 

ington,  D.C.  SYSTEMS 

HKNRY  SUZISALLO,  Pn.D.     .     .     .     Professor  of  the  Philosophy  of  Educa-  METHOD  OF 

tion,   Teachers    College,   Columbia  EDUCATION 
University,  New  York  City. 

FOOTER  WATSON,  Lirr.D.    .     .     .     Professor   of   Education,    University  ENGLISH 

College     of  Wales,    Aberystwyth,  EDUCATIONAL 

Wales.  HISTORY 
v 


CONTBIBUTORS  TO   VOLUME   III 


Herbert  A,  Aikins,  Ph.D.,  LL.D.,  Professor 
of  Philosophy,  Western  Reserve  Uni- 
versity. (David  Hurne.) 

Roswell  P.  Angier,  Ph.D.,  Assistant  Pro- 
fessor of  Psychology  and  Acting  Direc- 
tor of  the  Psychological  Laboratory, 
Yale  University.  (Topics  in  Psychol- 
ogy.) 

Joseph  Cullen  Ayer,  Jr.,  Rev.,  Ph.D.,  Pro- 
fessor of  Ecclesiastical  History,  Divinity 
School,  Protestant  Episcopal  Church, 
Philadelphia,  Pa  (Topics  'in  Early 
Christian  and  Medieval  Education.) 

Liberty  H.  Bailey,  LL.D.,  Director  of  New 
York  State  College  of  Agriculture,  Cor- 
nell University.  (Horticulture.) 

Franklin  T.  Baker,  Litt.D.,  Professor  of 
English  Language  and  Literatim*, 
Teachers  College,  Columbia  University. 
(English  Language)  etc.) 

Maurice  A.  Bigelow,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of 
Biology,  Teachers  College,  Columbia 
University.  (School  Gardens.) 

Franz  Boas,  Ph.D.,  LL.D.,  Professor  and 
Head  of  Department  of  Anthropology, 
Columbia  University.  (Growth.) 

Henry  E.  Bourne,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of  His- 
tory, Western  Reserve  University. 
(History  ) 

Edward  F.  Buchner,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of 
Education  and  Philosophy,  Johns  Hop- 
kins University.  (Educational  Philoso- 
phers.) 

William  H.  Burnham,  Ph.D.,  Professor  ol 
Pedagogy  and  School  Hygiene,  Clark 
University.  ( Topics  in  School  Hygiene  ) 

Edward  H.  Cameron,  Ph.D.,  Associate  Pro- 
fessor of  Psychology,  Yale  University. 
(Topics  in  Psychology.) 

Thomas  C.  Chamberlain,  Ph.D.,  LL.D  , 
Professor  and  Head  of  the  Department 
of  Geology ;  Director  of  Museums, 
University  of  Chicago.  (Geology.) 

Percival  R.  Cole,  Ph  D.,  Vice-Principal  of 
the  Training  College,  Sydney,  Aus- 
tralia. (Hcrbart.) 

Gabriel  CompayrS,  Inspector  General  of 
Public  Instruction;  Member  of  the 
Institute  of  France.  (Education  in 
France.) 

G.  G.  Coulton,  Late  Birkberk  Lecturer  in 
Ecclesiastical  History,  University  Col- 
lege, Cambridge.  (Hall  or  Hostel.) 


Ellwood  P.  Cubberley,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of 
Education,  Lei  and  Stanford  Jr.  Uni- 
versity. (Educational  Administration  ; 
State  SysteHM  of  Education.) 

Alexander  Darroch,  M.A.,  Professor  of 
Education,  University  of  Edinburgh. 
(Scotch  Universities  and  Biographies.) 

Henry  Davies,  Rev.,  Ph.D.,  Rector,  Easton, 
Md.  (Educational  Philosophers.) 

Walter  F.  Dearborn,  Ph.D.,  Assistant  Pro- 
fessor of  Psychology,  Harvard  Univer- 
sity. (Topics  in  Psychology.) 

John  Dewey,  Ph.D.,  LL.D.,  Professor  of 
Philosophy,  Columbia  University. 
(Topics  in  Philosophy  of  Education.) 

Richard  E.  Dodge,  A.M.,  Professor  of  Geog- 
raphy, Teachers  College,  Columbia 
University.  (Geography.) 

Fletcher  B.  Dresslar,  Ph.D.,  Expert  in 
School  Hygiene,  U.  8.  Bureau  of  Edu- 
cation, Washington,  D.C.  (Topics  in 
School  Hygiene.) 

Knight  Dunlap,  Ph.D.,  Associate  in  Psy- 
chology, Johns  Hopkins  University. 
(Psychological  Topics.) 

Charles  A.  Eastman,  M.D.,  Amherst,  Mass. 
(American  Indians.) 

Roland  P.  Falkner,  Ph.D.,  Assistant  Direc- 
tor, Bureau  of  the  Census,  Washington, 
D.C.  (Immigration  and  Education.) 

Aristide  Fanti,  Librarian,  United  States 
Bureau  of  Education,  Washington,  D.C. 
(Education  in  Italy.) 

Frederic  E.  Farrington,  Ph.D.,  Associate 
Professor  of  Educational  Administra- 
tion, Teachers  College,  Columbia  Uni- 
versity. (French  Educators.) 

Lee  K.  Frankel,  Assistant  Secretary  Metro- 
politan Life  Insurance  Company,  New 
York  City.  (Educational  Work  of  In- 
surance Companies.) 

Fabian  Franklin,  Ph.D.,  LL.D.,  Associate 
Editor  Evening  Post,  New  York  City. 
(D.  (\  Cihnan.) 

Shepherd  I.  Franz,  Ph.D.,  Scientific  Director 
and  Psychologist,  Government  Hospital 
for  the  Insane;  Professor  of  Experi- 
mental Psychology  and  of  Philosophy, 
George  Washington  University.  ( Topics 
in  Psychology.) 

H.  B.  Frissell,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  Principal, 
Hampton  Normal  and  Industrial  Insti- 
tute, Hampton,  Va  (Hampton  Institute.) 


VH 


CONTRIBUTORS  TO   VOLUME  III 


Charles  Galwey,  A.B.,  Tutor  of  English, 
College  of  the  City  of  New  York. 
(Colleges  and  Universities.) 

Thomas  D.  Goodell,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of 
Greek,  Yale  University.  (Study  of 
Greek ;  Homer.) 

Willystine  Goodsell,  Ph.D  ,  Assistant  Pro- 
fessor of  the  History  of  Education, 
Teachers  College,  Columbia  University. 
( Infant  Educati  on . ) 

William  E.  Griffis,  D.D.,  L.H.D  ,  Ithaca, 
N.Y.  (Korea;  Japan.) 

Louis  Grossmann,  Ph  IX,  Principal,  Hebrew 
Union  College,  Cincinnati,  O.  (Jn/'/.s7/ 
Education.) 

Charles  H.  Haskins,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of 
History  and  Dean  of  the  Graduate 
School,  Harvard  University.  ( History  ) 

Ernest  N.  Henderson,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of  Phi- 
losophy and  Education,  Adelphi  College 
(Topics  in  Philosophy  and  Psychology.) 

Milo  B.  Hillegas,  PhD.,  Assistant  Pro- 
fessor of  Elementary  Education, 
Teachers  College,  Columbia  Univer- 
sity. (Education  in  Modern  Greece  ) 

Douglas  Hyde,  LL IX,  D.Litt  ,  Dublin, 
Ireland .  ( Ed u cat io n  in  Ireland) 

Torstein  Jahr,  Cataloguer,  Library  of  Con- 
gress, Washington,  D  C.  (Greenland.) 

Joseph  Jastrow,  Ph.D  ,  Professor  of  Psy- 
chology, University  of  Wisconsin. 
(Hypnosis  ) 

G.  E.  Johnson,  AM.,  Superintendent, 
Pittsburgh  Playground  Association, 
Pittsburgh,  Pa.  (Games.) 

Wm.  Dawson  Johnston,  Litt.IX,  Librarian 
of  Columbia  University.  (Libraries.) 

Charles  H.  Judd,  Ph.D  ,  LL  D  ,  Professor 
and  Director  of  the  School  of  Educa- 
tion, University  of  Chicago.  (Topic* 
in  Educational  Psychology.) 

tsaac  L.  Kandel,  Ph.D  ,  Teaching  Fellow 
in  Teachers  College,  Columbia  Univer- 
sity. (Topics  in  Educational  History 
and  Administration  ) 

Kikuchi,  D.,  Baron,  Member  of  Privy 
Council,  Tokyo.  (Education  in  Japan.) 

William  H.  Kilpatrick,  Ph  D.,  Assistant  Pro- 
fessor of  the  History  of  Education, 
Teachers  College,  Columbia  University. 
(Tofncs  in  the  History  of  Education  ) 

Helen  Kinne,  Professor  of  Household  Arts 
Education,  Teachers  College,  Columbia 
University.  (Kitchen  Garden,  House- 
hold Art  in  Education.) 

W.  Kirchwey,  LL.IX,  Kent  Professor 
of  Law,  Columbia  University.  (Legal 
Education  ) 


George  P.  Krapp,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of  Eng- 
lish, Columbia  University.  (Grammar; 
Languages,  Artificial,  Language,  Eng- 
lish; Literature,  English.) 

Cecil  F.  Lavell,  Ph.D.,  Assistant  Professor 
of  the  History  of  Education,  Teachers 
College,  Columbia  University.  (Greek 
Education.) 

Arthur  F.  Leach,  Charity  Commissioner  for 
England  and  Wales,  London.  (Topics 
in  English  Educational  History.) 

James  G.  Legge,  Director  of  Education, 
City  of  Liverpool.  (Industrial  Ed  a- 
cation  ) 

Florence  N.  Levy,  Editor,  American  Art 
Annual.  (Industrial  Art  Schools.) 

Samuel  M.  Lindsay,  Ph.D.,  LL.IX,  Pro- 
fessor of  Political  Science,  Columbia 
University.  (Juvenile  Delinquency,  etc  ) 

Gonzalez  Lodge,  Ph  D  ,  LL.D.,  Professor  of 
Latin  and  Greek,  Teachers  College, 
Columbia  University.  (Latin  Lan- 
y  u  age  and  Isittratnre) 

Arthur  O.  Love  joy,  A.M.,  Professor  of 
Philosophy,  Johns  Hopkins  University. 
«7.  M.  Leibnitz  ) 

Joseph  McCabe,  formerly  Rector  of  Buck- 
ingham College.  (Hypatia.) 

Roswell  C.  McCrea,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of 
Economics,  University  of  Pennsylvania 
(Humane  Education  ) 

Millicent  Mackenzie,  M.A  ,  Professor  of 
Education,  University  College,  Cardiff, 
Wales  (Hegel) 

John  P.  Mahaffy,  D  D.,  Trinity  College, 
Dublin,  Ireland.  (Greek  Education.) 

George  L.  Meylan,  M.D.,  Assistant  Pro- 
fessor of  Physical  Education  and 
Medical  Director  of  the*  CJyinnasmm, 
Columbia  University.  (Educational 
Athleti.cs,  etc  ) 

Paul  Monroe,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of  the  His- 
tory of  Education,  Teachers  College, 
Columbia,  University  (Topics  in  the 
History  of  Education  ) 

Will  S.  Monroe,  A.B.,  Professor  of  Psy- 
chology and  Education,  State  Normal 
School,  Montclair,  N.J.  (American 
Biography,  etc.) 

Frederick  Monteser,  Ph.D.,  Head  of  Ger- 
man Department.,  De  Witt  Clinton  High 
School,  New  York  City;  formerly  Lec- 
turer on  Education,  New  York  Univer- 
sity (German  Educational  Biography  ) 

J.  E.  G.  de  Montmorency,  B.A ,  LL.B., 
Library  Editor  of  The  Contemporary 
Review '  Barrister,  London,  England. 
(Topics  ni  English  Educational  History.) 


Vlll 


CONTRIBUTORS  TO  VOLUME  III 


H.  Kingsmill  Moore,  Rev.,  Kildarc  Place, 
Dublin,  Ireland.  (Education in  Ireland.) 

James  Bass  Mullinger,  M.A.,  Lit!  D , 
Librarian  and  Lecturer  in  History,  St. 
John's  College,  Cambridge  University. 
(Greek,  Study  of.) 

Wilhelm  Miinch,  Ph.D  ,  Late  Gehemi- 
Regierungsrat  and  Ordentlicher  Hon- 
orar-Professor  of  Education,  University 
of  Berlin.  (Education  in  Germany  ) 

Naomi  Norsworthy,  Ph.D.,  Associate  Pro- 
fessor of  Educational  Psychology, 
Teachers  College,  ( Columbia  Univer- 
sity. (Infant  Education  ) 

William  Orr,  Deputy  Commissioner,  State 
Board  of  Education,  Boston,  Mass 
(High  School  Fraternities  ) 

Jean  Phillipe,  Ph.D.,  Associate  Director  of 
the  Laboratory  of  Physiological  Psy- 
chology, Sorbonne,  Paris.  (Greard : 
French  Journals  and  Journalism  ) 

Walter  B.  Pillsbury,  Ph.D  ,  Professor  of 
Psychology,  University  of  Michigan. 
(Topics  in  Psychology.) 

Alice  Ravenhill,  Formerly  Inspector  ^  of 
Hygiene  and  Domestic  Economy,  West 
Riding,  Yorkshire  (Household  Arts  ) 

Wyllys  Rede,  Rev.,  Ph  D  ,  D.I),  Fellow 
Johns  Hopkins  University  (Church 
Fathers,  etc  ) 

Charles  R.  Richards,  B.S.,  Director,  Coopei 
Union  for  the  Advancement  ot  Science 
and  Art,  New  York  City  (Industrial 
Education  ) 

Charles  L.  Robbins,  Ph  D  ,  Instructor  m 
History  of  Education,  Manhattan 
Training  School,  New  York  City. 
( Kirchenordnung.) 

Arthur  K.  Rogers,  Ph  D.,  Professor  of 
Philosophy,  University  ot  Missouri. 
(Dawd  Hartley  ) 

James  H.  Ropes,  D.D.,  Professor  of  History 
and  Dean  of  Department  ot  Umvei- 
sity  of  Extension,  Harvard  University. 
( Harvard  Um  versity. ) 

Michael  E.  Sadler,  LL.D.,  Litt.D  ,  Vice- 
Chancellor,  The  University,  Leeds,  Eng- 
land. (English  Educational  Biogra- 
phies.) 

Eben  C.  Sage,  D.D.,  Assistant  Secretary 
General  Education  Board.  (General 
Education  Board.) 

David  Salmon,  Principal,  Training  College, 
Swansea,  Wales.  (Topics  in  English 
Educational  History.) 

F.  M.  Schiele,  Ph.D.,  Formerly  Private 
Docent,  University  of  Tubingen.  (Ger- 
many.) 


Anna  Tolman  Smith,  Specialist  in  Educa- 
tion, United  States  Bureau  of  Edu- 
cation, Washington,  D.C.  (National 
Systems  of  Education.) 

David  Eugene  Smith,  Ph.D.,  Litt.D.,  Pro- 
fessor of  Mathematics,  Teachers  College, 
Columbia  University.  (Topics  in  Math- 
ematics ) 

David  Snedden,  Ph.D.,  Commissioner  of 
Education,  State  of  Massachusetts. 
(Topics  m  Educational  Administra- 
tion.) 

Edwin  R.  Snyder,  Ph.D.,  State*  Normal 
School,  San  Jose,  Cal.  (Rural  High 
Schools;  State  Systems  of  High  Schools  ) 

Steingrimur  Steffinsson,  Chief  Reviser, 
Catalogue  Division,  Library  of  Con- 
gress, Washington,  DC.  (Iceland) 

Thomas  A.  Storey,  M  D  ,  Professor  and 
Director  of  Phvsical  Education,  College 
of  the  City  ot  New  York.  (Topics  m 
School  Hygiene  ) 

William  S.  Sutton,  LL.D  ,  Dean  of  Depart- 
ment of  Education,  University  of  Texas 
(Wm.  T.  Harns  ) 

Henry  Suzzallo,  Ph  D  ,  Professor  of  the 
Philosophy  of  Education,  Teachers  Col- 
lege, Columbia  University  (Topics  in 
Educational  Method  ) 

Robert  Swickerath,  Rev.,  S  J.,  College  of  the 
Holy  Cross,  Worcester,  Mass  (Edu- 
cational Work  of  the  Society  of  Jesus.) 

Ralph  S.  Tarr,  Ph.D.,  Lute  Professor  of 
Geography,  Cornell  University.  (Geog- 
raphy ) 

Frank  Thilly,  Ph  D  ,  LL.D.,  Professor  of 
Philosophy,  Cornell  University  ( T.  H. 
Green ,  Lanye  ) 

Rudolf  Tombo,  Jr.,  Ph.D.,  Adjunct  Professor 
of  the  Germanic,  Languages  and  Litera- 
tures, Columbia  University.  (German 
[hi  i  versifies.) 

William  Turner,  Rev.,  S  T.D.,  Professor  of 
Philosophy,  Catholic  University  of 
America,  Washington,  D.C".  (Hugo  of 
St.  Victor;  St.  Jerome;  Peter  the  Lom- 
bard ) 

A.  E.  Twentyman,  Board  of  Education, 
Whitehall,  London.  (English  Educa- 
tional Journals.)  (Journals  and  Jour- 
nahxw.) 

George  Unwin,  Professor  of  Economic  His- 
tory, University  of  Manchester.  (Medie- 
val Guilds  and  Education.) 

Nina  C.  Vandewalker,  A.B.,  Head  of  Kinder- 
garten Department,  State  Normal 
School,  Milwaukee,  Wis.  (Kindergar- 
ten.) 


IX 


CONTRIBUTORS  TO  VOLUME  III 


George  E.  Vincent,  LL.D.,  President  Uni- 
versity of  Minnesota.  (WiJham  R 
Harper.) 

J.  W.  H.  Walden,  Ph.D.,  formerly  Instructor 
in  Latin,  Harvard  University.  (Li- 
banius.) 

Foster  Watson,  M.A.,  Litt.D  ,  Professor  of 
Education,  University  College  of  Wales, 
Aberystwyth,  Wales.  (Topics  in  Eng- 
lish Educational  History.) 

John  B.  Watson,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of  Ex- 
perimental and  Comparative  Psychol- 
ogy, Johns  Hopkins  University. 
(Habit;  Instinct.} 

Frank  A.  Waugh,  B.S.,  M.S.,  Head  of 
Division  and  Professor  of  Landscape 
Gardening,  Massachusetts  Agricultural 
College.  ( Horticultural  Education  in 
Europe.) 


Walter  Williams,  LL.D.,  Professor  of  the 
History  and  Principles  of  Journalism 
and  Dean  of  the  Faculty  of  Journalism, 
University  of  Missouri.  (Education  for 
Journalism.) 

Robert  C.  Woodworth,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of 
Psychology,  Columbia  University. 
(Imageless  Thought.) 

Mary  Schenck  Woolman,  B.S.,  President 
Women's  Industrial  Union,  Boston,  and 
Professor  of  Domestic  Art,  Simmons 
College.  (Household  Arts.) 

Robert  M.  Yerkes,  Ph.D.,  Assistant  Pro- 
fessor of  Comparative  Psychology,  Har- 
vard University.  (Topics  in  Psy- 
chology.) 

Paul  Ziertmann,  Ph.D.,  Oberlehrer  in  Steg- 
litz  Oberrealschule,  Berlin.  (Educa- 
tion in  Germany.) 


FULL-PAGE   ILLUSTRATIONS 

PAljR 

SCHOOL  GARDENS opposite  11 

GREEK  GYMNASTIC  SCHOOLS "  157 

GREEK  Music  SCHOOL "  159 

HAMPTON  INSTITUTE "  215 

A  GROUP  OF  AMERICAN  EDUCATORS "  219 

Cyrus  W  Hamlin;  William  T.  Harris;  Mark  Hopkins;  B.  A.  Hinsdale. 

HARVARD  COLLEGE "  229 

A  GROUP  OF  AMERICAN  HIGH  SCHOOLS "  264 

INDIAN  EDUCATION tt  417 

INDIAN  RESERVATIONS  AND  SCHOOLS "  419 

INFANT  SCHOOLS        ............           "  453 

A  GROUP  OF  MODERN  UNIVERSITY  EDUCATORS "  516 

Benjamin  Jowett;  William  James;   Simon  Somerville   Laurie;   William   Rainey 
Harper. 

JAPANESE  EDUCATION opposite  520 

A  GROUP  OF  GERMAN  EDUCATORS "  586 

Immanuel   Kant;   Georg  Wilhelm  F.  Hegel;  Johann  Friedrich  Herbart;  Friedrich 
Wilhelm  von  Humboldt. 

KINDERGARTEN  EDUCATION opposite  601 

A  GROUP  OF  ENGLISH  EDUCATORS "  621 

Sir  William  Hamilton;  Quintm  Hogg;  Joseph  Lancaster;  Thomas  Henry  Huxley. 

LELAND  STANFORD  JR.  UNIVERSITY opposite  626 


A  CYCLOPEDIA   OF  EDUCATION 


GAILHARD,  JOHN  —  Writer  of  the  Corn- 
pleat  Gentleman,  1678  This  treatise  is  divided 
into  two  parts,  the  first  containing  directions 
for  the  education  of  youth,  in  their  breeding  at 
home,  and  the  second  concerns  itself  with  their 
breeding  in  traveling  abroad  Gailhard  seems 
to  have  spent  a  number  of  years  as  tutor  abroad 
to  "  several  of  the  nobility  and  gentry  "  In 
the  first  part,  he  treats  of  breeding  children  at 
home,  and  recommends  a  wide  curriculum  sim- 
ilar to  that  of  Milton  Throughout  the  stress 
is  laid  upon  the  bearing  and  breeding  and  char- 
acter which  should  be  shown  by  the  nobleman 
and  the  best  means  of  inducing  it 

In  the  next  part,  Gailhard  points  out  the 
qualifications,  duties,  and  value  of  the  trav- 
eling tutor,  and  his  treatise  is  probably  the 
most  complete  on  the  subject  Before  trav- 
eling, the  pupil  should  learn  something  of  the 
language  of  the  country  to  which  he  goes  He 
should,  too,  know  well  his  own  country  and 
its  main  characteristics  before  traveling  The 
pupil,  following  the  excellent  custom  noted  by 
Bacon,  is  to  "  take  pains  in  writing  in  his 
Diary  Book  "  all  he  sees  Religious  devotions 
and  reading  of  the  Bible  must  not  bo  neglected. 
Physical  exercises  and  music  must  also  receive 
attention  If  he  comes  to  a  convenient  place, 
he  should  learn  the  general  principles  of  physic, 
say  at  Padua  or  Montpelher,  and  Civil  Law, 
say  at  Angers  or  Orleans.  Drawing  should 
also  be  learned  Gailhard  suggests  three  years 
as  the  time  for  the  Grand  Tour,  of  which  half 
should  be  spent  in  France  On  the  whole,  Gail- 
hard's  book  gives  great  insight  into  the  tone 
and  standards  of  the  young  gentleman  of  the 
times  and  the  current  English  views  of  foreign 
nations  F.  W 

See  GENTRY  AND  NOBLES,  EDUCATION  OP 

GALE,   GEORGE  WASHINGTON    (1789- 

1863).  —  A  pioneer  m  the  movement  for  man- 
ual training  in  the  United  States,  was  grad- 
uated from  Union  College  in  1814  and  from  the 
Princeton  Theological  Seminary  in  1818  He 
was  for  several  years  engaged  in  the  work  of 
the  ministry;  but,  failing  in  health,  he  retired 
to  a  farm  at  Whitesboro,  N  Y  ,  where  he  gave 
a  class  of  boys  free  board  and  tuition  for  a  few 
hours  of  work  each  day  on  the  farm.  Out  of 
the  experiment  grew  the  Oneida  Manual  Labor 
Institute  of  which  he  was  principal  for  seven 
years  (1827-1834).  Courses  were  given'in  ap- 
plied agriculture  and  woodwork  He  was  one 

VOL.  Ill  —  B  1 


of  the  founders  of  Knox  College  at  Galesburg, 
111.,  and  for  a  few  years  a  professor  there 

W   S.  M. 

See  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION;  MANUAL  TRAIN- 
ING SCHOOLS 

GALE  COLLEGE,   GALESBURG,  WIS  — 

See  LUTHERAN  EDUCATIONAL  SYSTEM  IN  THE 
U  S 

GALEN,  CLAUDIUS  (131-*  201).  —  Greek 
physician  and  writer  on  medical  subjects  He 
was  born  at  Pergamon  in  the  reign  of  Hadrian 
Galen  studied  medicine  at  Pergamon,  Smyrna, 
and  Alexandria  On  completing  his  studies  he 
returned  to  his  native  city  where  he  was  ap- 
pointed physician  to  the  athletes  in  the  gym- 
nasia He  spent  a  few  years  at  Rome,  where  his 
ability  attracted  attention  In  169  he  was  sum- 
moned to  attend  the  Emperors  Marcus  Aure- 
lius  and  L  Vrrus  in  the  campaign  on  the  north- 
eastern frontier  He  returned  to  Rome,  where 
he  became  for  a  time  physician  to  Aurelius  and 
Commodus  The  exact  date  of  his  death  is  not 
known,  but  Galen  certainly  lived  in  the  reign 
of  Septimus  Severus 

Galen  was  a  prolific  writer  and  is  credited 
with  some  500  works  Of  the  extant  works 
about  1 1 8  arc  considered  to  be  genuine  Al- 
though known  mainly  by  his  medical  works,  he 
wrote  many  treatises  on  philosophy  and  literary 
criticism  Among  his  writings  are  commen- 
taries on  the  dogmas  of  Plato  and  on  the 
Timceus  His  interest  in  the  works  of  Hip- 
pocrates is  shown  by  the  commentaries  lie 
also  wrote  on  the  Ancient  Comedy,  on  Atti- 
cisms, and  on  style  But  his  fame  rests  on  his 
works  in  the  field  of  medicine.  He  touched  on 
every  aspect  of  the  subject,  including  anatomy 
and  ph^ysiology,  dietetics  and  hygiene,  pathol- 
ogy, diagnosis,  pharmacy,  and  materia  mediea, 
therapeutics,  and  surgery  He  treats  of  the 
anatomical  phase  most  successfully,  although 
it  is  not  thought  that  he  had  any  opportuni- 
ties for  dissecting  human  bodies  He  himself 
recommended  the  dissection  of  animals,  and 
especially  monkeys,  as  being  most  like  the 
human  being  He  is  reputed  to  have  performed 
some  remarkable  surgical  operations  In  the 
field  of  pharmacy  and  materia  mediea  he  seems 
to  have  had  more  faith  in  amulets  than  in  medi- 
cine, although  he  was  famous  for  certain  pre- 
scriptions Galen  was  the  first  and  greatest 
authority  on  the  pulse 


GALILEI 


GALILEI 


Galen'.s  works  hold  the  place  111  the  study  of 
medicine  in  the  medieval  universities  which 
Aristotle  held  in  philosophy  His  authority 
was  not  questioned  until  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury In  1559  a  Dr  Geyner  was  admitted  to 
Ihe  College  of  Physicians  of  England  only  on  re- 
canting his  attacks  on  the  infallibility  of  Galen 
But  from  the  time  of  Galen  all  sects  (c  q  Dog- 
matics, Empirics,  Eclectics,  Pneumatics,  and 
Episynthetics)  were  united  under  the  one  great 
source  of  medical  lore  His  works  were  for  a 
long  time  read  in  Latin  or  Arabic  translations 
The  first  edition  of  the  Greek  text  was  pub- 
lished by  the  Aldme  pi  ess  in  1525 

References :  — 

BKKDOK,    TO      Origin    and   Growth    of  the   Healing   Art 

(London,  1893  ) 
DAKKMBKIU;      Exposition  de&   Connais^ances  de  Gotten 

sur  r  Anatomit       (Pans,    1841  )      Epitome  in  Kng- 

hbh  h\  Poxo      (Philadelphia,  1840) 
ILBKKG      Die  SchnftMtolloioi  doa  Klaudios  (Jalenos,  in 

Rhenibihu*  Museum  fui   Phdoxophie       1889,   1892, 

and  189G 
KIDD       Transaction*    of  the    Provincial    Surgical    A&so- 

(tatioti,  Vol   VI       (London,  1837  ) 
KUHN      Complete  Works  of  Galen  in  20  vols 
MrRAE,  C      Fathers  of  Biology      (London,  1890  ) 
MULLKR    and    HELMRJCH      Minor    Works    of    Galen. 

(Leipzig  1884  1893  ) 

GALILEI,  GALILEO  (1504-1042)  —The 
famous  astronomer  was  born  at  Pisa  His 
fathei ,  who  was  skilled  in  music  and  mathe- 
matics, intended  the  son  for  trade,  but  was  pre- 
vailed upon  to  send  him  to  the  University  of 
Pisa  to  study  medicine  Galileo  was  of  such 
an  argumentative  disposition  that  he  won  foi 
himself  the  nickname  oi  "  the  wrangler  "  But 
his  bent  was  not  for  medicine  In  15S2  he  made 
his  first  scientific  discovery  of  the  principle  of 
oscillation  of  a  pendulum  and  invented  an  in- 
strument which  was  useful  to  doctois  in  testing 
the  beat  of  the  pulse  Through  poverty  he  was 
compelled  to  leave  the  University  without  a  de- 
gree in  1585  In  15SO  he  wrote  an  essay,  not 
published  until  the  last  century,  on  the  hydio- 
static  balance,  an  instrument  which  he  had 
invented  to  measure  the  specific  gravity  of  solids. 
In  1589  he  became  professor  of  mathematics 
and  astronomy  in  the  University  of  Pisa  At 
this  period  began  his  long  senes  of  experiments 
which  mark  the  beginning  of  modern  methods 
in  scientific  study  In  place  of  deductions  and 
reliance  on  the  authority  of  Aristotle  he  made 
actual  experiments  as  precise  as  they  could  be 
in  his  time  He  devoted  his  attention  to  a 
study  of  falling  bodies,  and  concluded,  contrary 
to  the  opinion  of  the  day,  that  the  time  taken 
by  falling  bodies  depended  not  on  their  weight, 
but  on  the  resistance  of  the  air.  Although  the 
appointment  at  Pisa  was  for  three  years,  he 
left  before  his  time  expired,  owing  to  the  attacks 
of  his  opponents  In  1592,  he  was  appointed 
professor  of  mathematics  at  Padua,  originally 
for  a  period  of  six  years,  later  gradually  ex- 
tended to  eighteen  years,  and  then  for  life 
Here  he  attracted  large  audiences  to  his  lec- 


tures, and  devoted  his  attention  to  mechanics 
and  the  invention  of  scientific  instruments 
His  first  discovery  of  importance  in  astronomy 
was  made  in  1004  when  he  noticed  the  appear- 
ance of  a  star  in  the  constellation  8erpentarius 
which  was  more  distant  than  the  planets 
From  this  period  on  Galileo's  reputation  was 
spread  over  Europe  by  his  telescopic  observa- 
tions, and  his  improvements  on  the  telescope 
His  discoveries  he  published  in  1010  in  Sidereus 
Nunci  MS  (Sidereal  Messenger)  Here  he  showed 
that  the  markings  on  the  moon  were  caused  by 
mountains  and  their  shadows,  that  the  moon 
was  much  like  the  earth,  and  that  celes- 
tial phenomena  were  similar  to  those  on 
the  earth  The  Pleiades  and  the  Milky  Way 
he  proved  to  consist  of  numerous  stais  invis- 
ible to  the  naked  eye  In  the  same  year  he 
discovered  the  Satellites  of  Jupiter  Feeling 
the  need  of  more  time  for  his  researches  and 
writing,  he  returned  to  Pisa,  where  he  was  ap- 
pointed professor  of  mathematics  and  first 
philosopher  and  mathematician  to  the  Grand 
Duke  of  Tuscany,  a  well-salaried  post  with  few 
duties  attached  Among  his  other  discoveries 
were  the  sun  spots  and  the  fact  that  Venus 
derived  light  from  another  body  in  the  same 
way  as  the  moon 

There  were  not  wanting  those  who  seized  an 
oppoitunity  of  assailing  Galileo  for  his  over- 
throw of  the  belief  in  the  celestial  bodies  as 
perfect  and  unchangeable  He  was  drawn  into 
a  dispute  on  the  question  of  the  validity  of 
reasoning  and  observation  on  the  one  hand,  and 
scriptural  and  ecclesiastical  authonty  on  tho 
other  His  attitude  is  illustrated  by  the  fol- 
lowing quotation  fiom  his  writings,  u  Methinks, 
that  in  the  discussion  of  natural  problems  we 
ought  not  to  begin  at  the  authontv  of  places 
of  scripture,  but  at  sensible  experiments  and 
necessary  demonstrations."  In  1015  he  was 
denounced  to  the  Inquisition  which  appointed 
a  body  of  theologians  to  examine  the  Copermcan 
doctrines,  as  a  result  Galileo  was  admonished 
by  order  of  the  Pope  to  abandon  his  opinions 
For  the  next  few  years  Galileo  remained  in 
Rome,  where  he  had  powerful  friends  In  1023 
he  wrote  //  Saggiatore  (The  A^ayer),  the  final 
contribution  to  a  controversy  on  which  he  had 
entered  with  a  Jesuit  m  1618  The  book  again 
brought  him  into  favor  with  the  Pope,  to 
whom  it  was  dedicated  In  1032,  after  con- 
siderable difficulties  with  the  censors  at  Rome 
and  Florence,  he  published  a  Dialogue  on  the 
Two  Chief  Systems  of  the  World,  the  Ptolemaic 
and  Coper  mean,  which  was  a  powerful  argu- 
ment in  support  of  the  Copernican  theory  set 
out  in  a  thinly  veiled  disguise  A  feeling  that 
the  book  treated  disparagingly  of  the  Pope 
caused  the  Inquisition  to  stop  the  sale  of  the 
book  and  to  compel  Galileo  to  appear  for  trial. 
He  was  treated  kindly  during  the  trial,  but  was 
condemned  to  prison  Through  the  influence 
of  his  friends  he  was  allowed  to  remain  in  con- 
finement in  a  country  house  near  Florence.  He 


GALL 


GALLAUDET 


continued  his  investigations,  which,  however, 
were  cut  short  by  blindness  in  1636.  The  chief 
work  of  this  period  was  Mathematical  Discourses 
and  Demonstrations  concerning  Two  New  Sci- 
ences, relating  to  Mechanics  and  to  Loral  Motion, 
written  in  the  form  of  a  dialogue  and  dealing 
with  statics,  falling  bodies,  and  projectiles  In 
1642  Galileo  died  and  was  buried  in  the  Cathe- 
dral of  Santa  Croce  Galileo  ranks  with  Bacon 
as  one  of  the  founders  of  modern  experimental 
science  In  astronomy  he  will  always  have  a 
permanent  place,  for  many  of  his  discoveries, 
despite  the  lack  of  exact  instruments,  were 
remarkable  for  their  precision  In  dynamics 
he  created  an  entirely  new  science  which  served 
as  a  basis  on  which  future  scientists  were  to 
build 

References :  — 

ALBERT  Galileo's  Collected  Works,  in  16  volumes 
(Florence,  1842-1856.) 

BERRY,  A  A  Short  History  of  Astronomy  (New 
York,  1899) 

FAHIE,  J  J  Galileo,  His  Life  and  Work  (New  York, 
1903) 

The  Private  Life  of  Galileo  (London,  1870)  Anon- 
ymous 

WEGG-PROHWER  Galileo  and  his  Judges  (London, 
1889.) 

GALL,  FRANZ  JOSEPH  (1758-1828)  — 
The  founder  of  phrenology  (q.v.),  born  at  Tiefen- 
brunn  in  Baden,  the  son  of  an  Italian  merchant 
named  Gallo  He  received  his  early  education  at 
the  hands  of  his  uncle,  a  Catholic  priest;  later 
studied  at  Baden,  at  Bruchsal,  at  Strassburg, 
where  he  distinguished  himself  by  research  in 
natural  history,  and  at  Vienna,  where  he  took 
his  doctoral  degree  and  commenced  the  prac- 
tice of  medicine  In  1796  he  began  to  promul- 
gate his  theory  in  lectures,  which  were  continued 
until  1802,  when  they  were  forbidden  by  the 
Austrian  government  as  inimical  to  religion. 
In  1805  he  left  Vienna,  in  company  with  his 
pupil  Spurzheim,  and  in  1807  established  him- 
self at  Pans  In  the  intervening  two  years  he 
lectured  m  the  principal  cities  of  northern  and 
central  Europe,  and  in  1823  delivered  a  few 
lectures  in  London.  He  continued  lecturing 
at  Pans  until  a  few  months  before  his  death, 
which  occurred  at  Montrouge 

The  observations  on  which  Gall  based  phren- 
ology began  during  his  boyhood,  with  the  notic- 
ing of  an  apparent  relation  between  the  size  of 
the  eye  and  the  retentiveness  of  memory.  At 
Strassburg  and  Vienna  Gall  was  indefatigable 
in  the  examination  of  the  heads  of  persons  who 
exhibited  striking  mental  peculiarities,  model- 
ing many  of  them  in  plaster  and  wax;  and 
extended  his  study  to  the  lower  animals  He 
was  practically  the  first  to  recognize  the  main 
features  of  the  gross  anatomy  of  the  brain,  and 
the  function  of  the  fibers  and  of  the  cortex. 
The  importance  of  his  work  is  indicated  by  one 
of  the  inscriptions  on  a  medal  struck  in  his 
honor  in  Berlin:  //  trouva  I'instrumente  de 
I'dme.  Gall's  most  important  publications 


were  the  Recherche*  xm  lc  v 
general  et  sur  celui  du  cervcau  en  particuliei , 
written  in  collaboration  with  Spurzheim  (q  v  ), 
and  published  in  1809;  and  the  Anatomic  et 
physiologic  du  systemc  nerveux,  which  appeared 
in  four  volumes  in  1810-181 9  The  latter  work 
was  commenced  with  Spurzheim,  but  finished 
alone,  the  two  haying  quarreled  and  separated. 
An  abridged  edition  was  published  by  Gall  in 
1822,  and  an  English  translation  appeared  in 
Boston  in  1835  K  D. 

References :  — 

GODWIN,  W  Thoughts  on  Man,  his  Nature,  Produc- 
tion, and  Discoveries  Essay  on  Phrenology 
(London,  1831 ) 

HOEFER,  F  Nouvelle  Biographic  Generate  B.V.  Gall. 
(Pans,  1863-1870 ) 

GALLAUDET,  THOMAS  HOPKINS  (1787- 
1851).  —  The  founder  of  the  first  American 
school  for  the  deaf,  born  in  Philadelphia  the 
10th  of  December,  1787  He  received  his  edu- 
cation at  the  Hartford  Grammar  School,  Yale 
College  (graduating  in  1805),  and  Andovoi 
Theological  Seminary.  Becoming  interested 
in  the  deaf,  and  recognizing  their  need  of  edu- 
cation, he  went  to  England  to  study  the  meth- 
ods of  lip-reading  and  articulation  in  use  in 
that  country  The  selfishness  of  the  proprie- 
tors of  the  British  schools  made  it  impossible  for 
him  to  study  the  methods  there  used,  and  he 
went  to  Paris,  where  he  was  cordially  leceived 
by  the  Abbe"  Sicard  (q.v  ),  who  placed  all  the 
facilities  of  the  French  institution  at  his  dis- 
posal The  manual  or  sign  method  was  em- 
ployed in  the  Pans  school,  and  this  was  the 
method  that  Gallaudet  brought  to  America 
With  the  assistance  of  Laurent  Clerc,  who  had 
been  associated  with  the  Abbe*  Sicard,  Gallaudet 
organized  the  American  Asylum  for  Deaf- 
mutes  at  Hartford,  in  1816,  and  continued  at  its 
head  until  1830  As  this  was  the  first  school 
for  the  deaf  in  the  United  States,  practically 
all  the  instructors  in  deaf  schools  in  the  coun- 
try for  a  half  century  were  trained  at  Hart- 
ford, and  the  manual  or  sign  alphabet  became 
the  dominant  method  of  instruction  During 
1832  and  1833  Gallaudet  was  professor  of  the 
philosophy  of  education  in  New  York  Univer- 
sity This  was  the  first  professorship  of  edu- 
cation in  the  United  States  (See  EDUCATION, 
ACADEMIC  STUDY  OF  )  He  was  also  active  in 
the  movement  which  established  the  first  nor- 
mal schools  in  America  Besides  his  writings 
on  the  education  of  the  deaf,  he  published  a 
number  of  essays  on  the  philosophy  of  educa- 
tion and  several  text-books,  including  the  popu- 
lar Mother's  Primer  and  the  Child's  Picture  Defin- 
ing and  Reading  Book  His  Plan  of  a  Seminary 
for  the  Education  of  Instructors  of  Youth  (Boston, 
1825)  gave  rise  to  the  normal  school  idea  in 
America  He  died  at  Hartford  the  9th  of 
September,  1851.  W.  S.  M. 

See  DEAF,  EDUCATION  OF  THE. 


GALLAUDET  COLLEGE 


GALTON 


References :  — 

BARNARD      American  Journal  of  Education,  1850.     Vol. 

I,  pp  433-444. 
GALLAUDET,  E.  M      Life  of   T   77    Qallaudct      (Now 

York,  1888.) 
HUMPHREY,  H.     Life  of  T.  //.  Gallaudet.     (N™  York, 

1858.) 

GALLAUDET  COLLEGE,  WASHINGTON, 
D.C.  —  A  coeducational  institution  for  the 
higher  education  of  the  deaf,  founded  in  1864 
as  the  National  Deaf-Mute  College.  The  pres- 
ent name  was  adopted  at  the  request  of  the 
alumni  m  1894  in  howor  of  Thomas  Hopkins 
Gallaudet  (q  v.)  The  course  given  by  the 
college  extends  over  five  years,  including  one 
year  of  preparatory  work  A  general  course 
in  the  essentials  of  a  liberal  education  is  given 
leading  to  the  degrees  of  B  A  and  B  S  A 
normal  course  is  maintained  for  training  hear- 
ing persons  who  are  already  graduates  of  col- 
leges and  wish  to  become  teachers  of  the  deaf. 
There  are  fourteen  members  on  the  faculty 

GALLOWAY,    SAMUEL    (1811-1872)  —A 

pioneer  of  the  common  school  movement  m 
Ohio ;  was  graduated  at  Miami  University  in 
1833.  He  was  teacher  and  principal  of  schools 
in  Ohio,  state  superintendent  of  public  instruc- 
tion (1844-1851),  and  professor  in  Miami  Uni- 
versity He  was  one  of  the  organizers  and  the 
first  president  of  the  Ohio  State  Teachers' 
Association  W.  S.  M. 

GALLOWAY  COLLEGE,  SEARCY,  ARK  — 

An  institution  for  the  education  of  women 
under  the  auspices  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church,  South,  established  in  1890  Prepara- 
tory, collegiate,  and  music  courses  are  offered 
Twelve  units  are  required  for  entrance  to  the 
college  course  which  leads  to  the  A  B  degree. 
There  are  nineteen  teachers  on  the  faculty. 

GALTON,  FRANCIS  (1822-1911).  —  A  cele- 
brated English  scientific  investigator,  born  in 
Birmingham,  England,  in  1822,  of  a  distin- 
guished family  His  paternal  grandfather,  a 
Quaker  and  a  business  man  of  ability,  was 
interested  m  the  study  of  birds  and  in  statis- 
tics. A  cousin,  Sir  Douglas  Galton,  was  an 
eminent  engineer  This  mathematical  inherit- 
ance was  supplemented  on  the  mother's  side 
by  genius  in  the  study  of  nature.  Galton's 
maternal  grandfather  was  Erasmus  Darwin, 
hardly  less  remarkable  a  naturalist  than  his 
illustrious  grandson,  Charles  Darwin.  Galton 
studied  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  and 
took  the  degree  of  B  A  in  1844  He  began 
his  career  as  an  explorer  of  the  upper  Nile, 
and  later  of  Damaraland  in  Southwest  Africa. 
In  the  latter  region  he  discovered  the  Ovampo 
race,  an  agricultural  people  As  an  explorer 
he  not  only  added  materially  to  anthropology, 
etc.,  but  also  to  the  methods  by  which  expedi- 
tions can  most  successfully  be  carried  on  His 
results  were  published  in  the  Royal  Geographi- 


cal Society's  Journal  for  1852,  and  in  his  books, 
Narrative  of  an  Explorer  in  Tropical  South 
Africa,  and  Art  of  Travel  or  Shifts  and  Con- 
trivances in  Wild  Countries 

The  second  phase  of  Galton's  activity  con- 
cerns meteorology  He  invented  the  graphic 
method  of  indicating  weather  conditions,  which 
is  to-day  used  in  connection  with  weather 
forecasts  It  appears  in  his  Meteorographica, 
or  Methods  of  Mapping  the  Weather,  published 
in  1863  He  also  developed  the  theory  of 
anti-cyclones  especially  valuable  in  such  prog- 
nostications In  addition  he  invented  many 
instruments  useful  in  meteorologic  observa- 
tions The  phenomena  of  meteorology  are  so 
complicated  that  predictions  can  be  made 
only  in  terms  of  probability  and  on  the  basis 
of  extensive  statistical  data  These  methods, 
Galton  conceived,  should  be  applied  to  biology, 
anthropology,  and  psychology,  for  here,  too, 
the  conditions  are  exceedingly  complicated, 
and  statistical  methods  and  probabilities  aie 
an  appropriate  foundation  and  form  of  expres- 
sion for  predictions  His  work  in  these  fields 
constitutes  the  third  phase  of  Galton's  activiU 
He  began  with  the  study  of  heredity,  and  in 
1869  published  his  Hcrcditmy  Genius,  in  which 
he  demonstrated  the  inheritance  of  genius  A 
child  whose  ancestors  are  talented  is  shown  to 
have  a  much  greater  chance  of  being  well  en- 
dowed than  one  not  possessing  such  an  heredity 
He  continued  his  studies  of  eminent  men  in 
his  English  Men  of  Science,  published  m  1874 
Later  he  took  up  the  investigation  of  the  nature 
of  mental  powers,  arid  to  get  material,  devised 
the  method  of  the  question  nane  He  used  this 
method  especially  in  the  study  of  mental 
imagery,  in  which  his  researches,  published  in 
1883  in  Inquiries  into  Human  Faculty,  are 
classic  The  method  of  the  questionnaire  also 
gave  him  his  data  in  regard  to  family  faculties, 
by  which  he  was  enabled  to  make  a  careful 
quantitative  study  of  the  types  and  amount  of 
inheritance  In  these  studies,  published  in 
1889  in  Natural  Inheritance,  he  developed  an 
ingenious  method  of  using  the  probable  chance 
distribution  of  variable  factors  as  a  basis  for 
estimating  the  likelihood  of  the  presence  of 
any  chance  tendency  disturbing  such  a  distri- 
bution He  also  laid  the  foundation  for  his 
Law  of  Ancestral  Inheritance  (see  HEREDITY), 
which  he  stated  in  a  paper  presented  before* 
the  Royal  Society  In  connection  with  these 
anthropological  and  psychological  researches 
he  invented  composite  photography,  as  a 
means  of  bringing  out  the  typical  facial  char- 
acteristics of  a  group  He  also  discovered  the 
unique  character  of  the  arrangement  of  the 
lines  on  the  fingers  of  any  individual,  and  his 
works  on  Finger  Print*  and  an  Index  of  Finger 
Prints  formed  the  basis  of  the  Bertillon  system 
of  identifying  criminals.  The  latest  work  of 
Galton  concerns  eugenics  (qv),  by  which  he 
meant  the  science ^of  controlling  mating  in  the 
interest  of  the  preservation  and  improvement 


GALTON'S  LAW 


GAMES 


of  the  type  This  practical  application  of  his 
studies  in  heredity  has  an  immediate  relation 
to  education,  since  it  is  upon  this  agency  that 
the  principles  of  eugenics  must  in  the  main 
depend  in  order  to  reach  the  individual  and 
affect  practice.  It  is  likely,  however,  that  the 
greatest  service  rendered  by  Galton  to  educa- 
tion consists  in  the  statistical  methods  by 
which  quantitative  accuracy  can  be  introduced 
into  the  complicated  phenomena  of  mental  cul- 
ture Only  thus  can  educational  theory  and 
practice  be  given  the  convincing  character  of 
science  Galton  died  on  Jan.  17,  1911 

E.  N.  H 

See    EKKOR    OF    OBSERVATION;      GENIUS; 
GRAPHIC  CURVE;    HEREDITY. 

References :  — 

Curpor  Outlook,  Vol.  LXXVII,  Feb.  4,  1011,  p  249 
(JALTON,  F  Memories  of  my  Life  (London,  1908  ) 
Scientific  Achievements  Natuie,  Vol  LXXXV,  Feb.  4, 

1911,  pp  440-^45 
Scientific  Career       Nation,  Vol    LXII,  Jan.   20,    1911 

pp  79-80 

GALTON'S  LAW  —  See  HEREDITY 

GALWAY,  UNIVERSITY  COLLEGE  —  See 

IRELAND,  EDUCATION  IN 

GAMALIEL  —  Grandson  of  Hillel,  and  the 
founder  and  head  of  the  hbeial  school  which 
bore  that  name,  was  one  of  the  most  distin- 
guished of  Jewish  scholars  and  educators  In 
such  high  respect  was  he  held  that  at  his  death, 
according  to  the  Mishna,  "  reverence  for  the 
law  ceased  arid  purity  and  abstinence  died 
a\\av,"  such  was  their  sense  of  loss  in  the 
death  of  their  greatest  bulwark  of  learning 
and  moiality  Under  his  influence  instruction 
in  the  Jewish  law  was  more  fully  imbued  with 
the  spirit  of  practical  life  than 'in  later  times 
He  was  an  enthusiastic  student  of  Greek  litera- 
ture, which  was  held  in  abhorrence  by  the  rabbis 
and  forbidden  to  the  young  His  influence 
appears  in  the  training  of  St  Paul,  who  prided 
himself  upon  having  sat  at  the  feet  of  this 
greatest  of  Jewish  teachers  His  enlighten- 
ment and  toleration  are  apparent  in  his  verdict 
as  President  of  the  Sanhedrm  of  Jerusalem  in 
the  trial  of  St  Peter  and  other  Apostles  (Acts 
v,  33-42}  The  tradition  that  Gamaliel  be- 
came a  Christ jan  and  was  baptized  by  St  Paul 
is  inconsistent  with  the  honors  afterwards 
heaped  upon  him  by  the  Jews  W.  R. 

See  JEWISH  EDUCATIONS 

Reference :  — 

FRANKEL,  Z      HoflcycUen      (Leipzig,  1859 ) 

GAMES.  —  A  game  is  a  form  of  play  in 
which  the  players  adhere  more  or  less  strictly 
to  certain  traditions,  regulations,  or  rules, 
written  or  unwritten  Games  are  a  latci  devel- 
opment of  play  (q.v )  Phylogeneticallv  and 
ontogenetically  informal  play  precedes  formal 
play  or  games 


Origin  —  The  origin  of  most  existing  games 
is  obscure  Falkener  has  traced  some  to  cer- 
tain rites  of  divination,  and  Culm  also  asserts 
that  games  were  derived  from  serious  religious 
ceremonies  Even  as  late  as  the  Olympic 
games  of  Greece  and  the  Ludi  Apollmares  at 
Rome  athletic  games  had  a  religious  signifi- 
cance Nearly  all  our  existing  games  are  modi- 
fied forms  of  games  of  great  antiquity  Culm 
says,  "  It  is  safe  to  say  that  no  new  game  has 
been  invented  during  the  historic  period,  and 
that  all  we  regard  as  new  are  only  modifications 
of  games  played  before  the  building  of  the 
Egyptian  pyramids  "  "  Among  the  pictures 
of  ancient  Egyptian  games  on  the  tombs  of 
Beni  Hassan  "  (3000-2500  B  c  ),  says  E  B 
Taylor,  "  one  shows  a  player  with  head  down 
so  that  he  cannot  see  what  the  others  are  doing 
with  their  clenched  fists  above  his  back  " 
This  game  is  played  by  boys  to-day.  It  is  the 
American  game  sometimes  called  "  Biff/'  the 
English  game  of  "  Hot  Cockles,"  the  French 
game  of  u  Mam-Chaude,"  and  the  Greek 
"  Kollabismos  "  Tavlor  calls  attention  to 
Luke  22  64  "  And  they  blindfolded  him  and 
asked  him  saying,  Prophesy  who  is  he  that 
struck  thee'?  "  Among  the  games  of  the  Am- 
erican Indians  are  found  the  prototypes  of 
dice,  cards,  chess,  golf,  shmney,  baseball,  and 
racket. 

Games,  like  informal  play,  doubtless  gre\\ 
out  of  experience  Among  the  first  games  of 
children  are  games  of  chasing,  throwing,  and 
striking  These  suggest  the  hunting  and 
fighting  experiences  of  the  race  A  B  Gomme 
in  her  notable  study  of  the  games  of  children 
has  classified  games  according  to  the  experi- 
ence represented,  as  contest  games,  marriage 
games,  funeral  games,  harvest  games,  divina- 
tion games,  etc  Many  folk  dances  especialh 
suggest  experience  Among  the  Indians, 
dances  represent  scenes  of  the  hunt  or  the  war- 
path Among  civilized  people,  manv  folk 
dances  represent  industrial  experiences,  as  m 
the  harvest  and  weaving  dances 

Practical  Uses  of  Games. —  The  uses  of 
games  may  be  divided  as  follows 


A    Fundamental  B 

(1)  For  conserva- 

tion 

(2)  For  develop- 

ment 

(3)  For  education 

(a)  Physical 

(b)  Mental 

(c)  Moral 

(d)  Social 

Conservation  —  It  is  the  ofhce  of  games  to 
conserve  certain  essential  characteristics,  cer- 
tain fundamental  interests  and  powers  It  is 
a  principle  in  evolution  that  when  an  organ 
develops  from  a  lower  to  a  higher  form  there  is 
a  tendency  toward  a  loss  of  some  excellence 


Incidental 

(1)  Recreational 

(2)  Substitutional 

(3)  Prophylactic 

(4)  Cathartic 

(5)  Corrective 

(6)  Vicarious 


GAMES 


GAMES 


formerly  possessed.  In  any  period  of  rapid 
evolution  there  is  always  a  danger  that  the  pass- 
ing of  the  old  may  be  too  rapid  or  too  complete, 
that  the  foundation  may  be  sacrificed  to  the 
superstructure,  that  the  fundamental  may  be 
depleted  in  the  acquisition  of  the  accessory. 
It  is  of  great  importance  in  the  evolution  of  a 
species  that  right  proportions  be  maintained 
between  that  which  was  the  old  and  that  which 
is  the  new  This  danger  that  is  present  in  the 
development  of  a  species  is  increased  in  the 
ease  of  the  recapitulatory  process  in  the  in- 
dividual, a  fact  of  tremendous  importance  in 
education 

Now  .lames  has  shown  that  many  essential 
hereditary  characteristics  are  conserved  by 
means  of  instincts  That  is,  what  is  really 
inherited  in  such  cases  is  only  a  potentiality 
or  tendency,  and  the  survival  of  the  character- 
istic, or  power,  depends  upon  habits  formed 
through  instinctive  reaction  to  the  environ- 
ment But  many  instincts  ripen  at  a  certain 
age,  and  then  weaken  or  disappear  If  a  habit 
has  been  formed  meantime,  well  and  good,  if 
not,  it  is  likely  never  to  be  formed. 

It  is  well  understood  that  there  is  a  progres- 
sion of  games  in   childhood  and   youth   corre- 
sponding to  the  progression   of  interests  and 
powers  through  the  various  periods  of  growth 
and  development      These  various  games  call 
out,  exercise,  and  develop  certain  fundamental 
physical,   mental,  moral,  and   social  traits  of 
peculiar   interest   at   the   several   periods.     If 
no  adequate  opportunity  be  provided  for  the 
kind  of  play  necessary  to  call  out,  exercise,  and 
develop   these   traits   at  the   time   of  keenest 
natural  interest  in  them,  these  interests  tend 
to  fade  away,  as  is  the  case  of  the  instincts 
mentioned  by  James,  and  the  most  favorable 
opportunity  for  forming  habits  of  reaction  in 
accord  with  these  is  lost      "  If,"  says  James, 
"  a  boy  grows  up  alone  at  the  age  of  games  and 
sports,  and  learns  neither  to  play  ball,  nor  row, 
nor  sail,  nor  ride,  nor  skate,  nor  fish,  nor  shoot, 
probably  he  will  be  sedentary  to  the  end  of  his 
days,    and,  though  the  best  of  opportunities 
be  afforded  him  for  learning  these  things  later, 
it  is  a  hundred  to  one  but  he  will  pass  them  by 
and  shrink  back  from  the  effort  of  taking  those 
necessary  first  steps,  the  prospect  of  which  at 
an  earlier  stago  would  have  filled  him  with 
eager  delight  "     So,  on  the  moral  side,  if  a  boy 
grows  up  alone  and  does  not  learn  to  play 
games  which  call  for  great  activity,  competi- 
tion, courage,  fortitude,  perseverance  fairness, 
generosity,    loyalty,    cooperation,  sacrifice,  he 
loses  the  most  favorable  opportunity  for  the 
development   of   these   traits   in   him      While 
it  is  possible  to  conceive  that  work  might  at  a 
favorable   time   provide   opportunity   for   the 
exercise  of  these  traits,  yet  work,  in  so  far  as  it 
departs  from  play,  in  the  psychological  sense, 
must  in  the  nature  of  the  case  by  so  much  be 
educationally  less  effective 
Development  —  The  normal  development  of 

6 


an   organ   depends    upon    three    factors.    (1) 
natural  impulse  to    growth,  or    heredity,    (2) 
nutrition;    (3)    exercise      According  to  Tyler, 
there  seem  to  be  three  stages  of  development. 
(1)  A  period  of  growth  in  which  there  is  little 
or  no  exercise  of  the  organ.     (2)  A  period  m 
which  growth  continues  and  modification  of 
internal  structure,  under  the  stimulus  of  exer- 
cise, begins.     (3)  A  period  after  growth  in  size 
and  weight  has  been  attained,  in  which  exercise 
and  structural  change  continue,  as  the  organ 
approaches  maturity.     When  we  consider  that 
the  game  interests  have  their  genesis  in  struc- 
ture which  at   its   various  stages  of  develop- 
ment calls  for  exercise  appropriate  to  its  needs 
and  powers,  it  necessarily  follows  that  the  kind 
of  exercise  supplied  by  the  games  must  in  turn 
greatly   stimulate    growth    and    development 
Moreover,    the   emotional   accompaniment   of 
joyous   participation  in  games  and  the  effect 
upon   the  vaso-motor   system   tend   to   bring 
about  a  condition  of  full  nutrition  of  the  devel- 
oping organs.     This   explains  the  exhilaration 
which  accompanies  participation  in  games  like 
baseball  and  tennis,   for  example      In  short, 
appropriate  games  provide  the  exercise  which 
is  suited  to  the  present  needs  and  powers  of 
the  developing  organs,  the  exercise  which  best 
stimulates  growth  and  structural  change,  and 
which  also  stimulates  the  vaso-motor  system 
and  tends  to  bring  about  a  condition  of  full 
nutrition 

Education  —  Physical  —  The  value  of 
games  in  physical  education  is  obvious  More- 
over, it  is  interesting  to  note  that  games  have 
been  the  conservative  and  not  the  radical  ele- 
ment in  systems  of  physical  training  Of  the 
great  systems  of  the  world,  the  Grecian,  the  me- 
dieval, the  British,  the  German  system  of  Guts 
Muths  and  Jahn,  and  the  Swedish  system  of 
Ling,  the  exercises  of  the  first  three  were  largely 
or  wholly  games,  there  was  a  large  element  of 
games  m  the  fourth,  and  there  is  especially  in 
America  a  constantly  increasing  element  of 
games  in  the  last.  It  is.  now  very  generally 
recognized  that  specific  movements  designed 
for  the  development  of  particular  muscles  or 
groups  of  muscles  and  performed  while  con- 
sciousness is  largely  absorbed  in  the  execution 
of  the  movements,  are  not,  frotn  the  standpoint 
of  health  and  vitality,  as  beneficial  as  the  cxei- 
cises  involved  in  games,  in  which  there  is  a  far 
larger  clement  of  pleasure  and  little  or  no  con- 
sciousness of  the  details  of  the  movements  exe- 
cuted 

Mental  —  Recent  studies  of  the  relation  of 
motor  ability  to  intelligence  have  emphasized 
the  educational  value  of  play  activities  Mosso 
and  others  have  shown  that  the  phenomena  of 
muscular  fatigue  and  mental  fatigue  are  iden- 
tical. Fatigue  of  the  muscles  is  attended  by  a 
loss  of  power  of  attention,  and  fatigue  of  atten- 
tion by  loss  of  power  of  the  muscles 

Educationally,  games  develop  power  rather 
than  extend  intelligence,  that  is,  develop  an 


GAMES 


GAMES 


ability  to  apply  what  one  knows  rather  than 
give  comprehensive  knowledge  which  may  01 
may  not  be  applied  Educationally  games 
excel  in  this,  that  they  develop  a  capacity  foi 
instantaneous  and  perfectly  coordinated  reaction 
to  situations  within  the  field  in  which  the 
education  applies,  however  restricted  that 
field  may  seem  to  be.  In  emeigencies, 
crises,  in  time  of  stress,  excitement,  or  peril, 
within  the  field  of  action  analogous  to  that 
covered  by  games,  games  provide  a  tiainmg 
par  excellence  For  example,  games  may  fur- 
nish no  definite  knowledge  that  would  enable 
a  lawyer  to  conduct  a  case  successfully,  but 
they  do  provide  a  training  which  would  enable1 
a  Iaw3rer,  under  the  strain  of  an  exciting  tiial, 
in  full  possession  of  himself,  to  concentrate 
and  coordinate  every  power  to  the  task  in 
hand 

Moral  —  The  relation  of  games  to  moral 
training  has  always  been  recognized  to  a  cer- 
tain extent.  However,  a  fai  greater  apprecia- 
tion of  the  moral  significance  of  games  has 
come  about  in  recent  years,  through  the  stimu- 
lus of  a  new  appreciation  of  the  meaning  and 
significance  of  play  in  general,  and  notably  by 
such  a  study  as  (juhck's  Psychological,  Peda- 
gogical and  Religion*  Aspects  of  Group  Garner 
The  generally  accepted  theory  that  evolu- 
tionary progress  has  been  from  the  fundamen- 
tal to  the  accessory  and  that  this  same  oidei, 
in  a  general  way,  is  observed  in  the  normal 
development  of  an  individual,  has  us  apt  an 
application  in  the  field  of  conduct  as  in  phys- 
ical or  intellectual  development  One  readily 
recognizes  that  there  are  certain  fundamental 
virtues  which  are  the  basis  of  latei  accessory 
moral  qualities  Now,  the  significance  of 
games  in  moral  training  lies  not  alone  in  the 
opportunity  for  the  exercise  of  faiinesLS,  coin- 
age, cooperation,  etc  ,  but  especially  in  the 
fact  that  children  and  youth  have,  at  a  certain 
age,  an  instinctive  interest  in  just  these  funda- 
mental virtues  Just  as  the  developing  organ* 
call  for  physical  exercise  of  a  type  appropiiate 
to  their  needs  and  powers,  so  also  the  moial 
nature  or  organism  calls  for  a  display  of  certain 
types  of  character  appropriate  to  the  stage  of 
development  For  example,  the  individual 
competitive  games  of  boys  from  ten  to  twelve 
call  for  such  traits  as  courage,  hardihood, 
pugnacity,  fairness  The  boy  who  displays 
these  qualities  is  admired  by  his  companions, 
and  the  boy  who  lacks  them  is  not  But  phys- 
ical courage  is  a  prototype  of  moral  courage, 
hardihood  of  fortitude,  pugnacity  of  righteous 
wrath,  fairness  of  justice 

Social  —  A  game  is  socialized  play  Games 
necessitate  an  appreciation  of  social  relation- 
ships, and  there  were  no  games  until  the  race 
haa  developed  a  capacity  for  social  activities 
Since  games  developed  commensuratcly  with  the 
capacity  of  the  race  for  social  activity,  there  is 
in  games  a  review  of  the  social  development  of 
mankind. 


There  are  several  obvious  applications  of  the 
social  influence  of  games,  as  for  example  — 

1  In    the   development    of   sociability   and 
sympathy. 

2  In  the  training  and  contiol  of  the  fight- 
nig  instinct,  or  the  instinct  of  competition,  as  a 
basis  of  noble  emulation  on  the  one  hand  and  of 
capacity  for  nghteous  conquest  on  the  other 

3  In  the  training  foi  cooperative  action. 

4  In    providing    an    outlet   for  types  of  ac- 
tivity that  might  otherwise  become  anti-social 

Games  might  be  classified  according  to  social 
significance,  in  tlnee  classes  — 

1  Sociable    or    cooperative  games,    such    as 
the  dramatic  and  imitative  games  of  children, 
folk  games,  dances,  group  singing 

2  Competitive    games,    such    us    wrestling, 
boxing,  racing 

3  Cooperative-competitive   games,    such   as 
baseball,   football,  basketball 

The  emphasis  of  mteicst  in  these  games  is 
somewhat  as  follows  In  sociable  01  coopera- 
tive games,  to  about  seven  (possibly,  in  the 
case  of  girls,  at  all  periods),  in  competitive 
games  from  about  seven  to  about  twelve,  in 
cooperative-competitive  games,  from  about 
twelve  on 

Incidental  uses  of  games  — Recicntionol 
—  Since  games  have  the  uses  mentioned  under 
Conservation,  Development,  and  Education, 
they  are,  foi  children  and  youth  at  least,  to  be 
regarded  as  having  a  far  deeper  significance 
than  the  merely  recreational,  yet  the  reorea- 
tional  effect  of  games  as  a  change  fiom  study 
and  sedentary  pursuits  and  ita  v  alue  are  ob- 
vious 

Sitb\titnlnt)i<il  — (James  provide  a  useful 
substitute  for  what  might  piove  harmful  ac- 
tivities They  also  divert  from  undesirable 
states  of  consciousness,  as  in  disappointment, 
anger,  morbid  introspection  and  the  like 
"  Horse  play,"  oigies,  outbieaks,  might  often 
l)e  diverted  through  the  legitimate  channel  of 
games. 

Prophylactic  —  GSames  often  pi  event  anti- 
social activities  and  the  acquisition  of  anti- 
social habits  Boys  are  ai  rested  foi  rrus- 
demeanois  in  throwing,  stoning  windows, 
snowballing  pedestrians,  provoking  persons, 
o\  en  policemen,  to  chase  them,  etc  Ball 
games  and  running  games  provide  the  same 
activity  and  excitement  in  a  legitimate  form 

Cathartic  —  Aristotle  thought  that  certain 
primitive  instincts  could  be  pinged  away  by 
harmless  means,  as  by  the  diama,  and  in  this 
way  harmful  and  anti-social  expression  of  the 
impulse  be  prevented  Strictly,  games  should 
not  be  regarded  as  cathartic  so  much  as  direc- 
tive Games  serve  not  so  much  by  purging 
away  as  by  training  and  directing  the  primi- 
tive instincts  For  example,  boxing  under 
right  conditions  diminishes  fighting,  not,  how- 
ever, by  purging  away  the  righting  instinct, 
but  by  directing  and  controlling  it,  making  it  a 
basis  for  a  higher  expression  in  games  and  in 


GAMES 


GAMES 


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GAMES 


GANGLION 


the  affairs  of  life  All  social,  moral,  and  civil 
leaders,  reformers,  and  martyrs  have  possessed 
in  a  high  degree  this  primitive  instinct  trained 
to  a  higher  and  nobler  expression 

Corrective.  —  Games  supply  exercises  best 
adapted  to  develop  in  a  normal  child  perfect 
physical  form  and  proportion  This  is  ob- 
viously so  inasmuch  as  they  involve  the  types 
of  activity  which  shaped  the  body  in  the  pro- 
cess of  evolution.  When  the  body  of  a  child 
has  become  ill-formed  through  some  cause  or 
other,  games,  wisely  chosen,  may  supply  a  most 
valuable  corrective 

Vicarious.  —  The  value  of  a  game  is  not 
alone  to  the  players.  Games  benefit  those 
who  only  stand  and  wait  The  sympathetic 
participation  of  little  children  in  the  game 
they  are  watching  is  evident  to  the  observer. 

AGES 


7     8 


MAXIMUM  TIME  DEVOTED  TO 
FORMAL  STUDY,  RECITATION 
AND  WORK  I  E  TIME  UNDER 
FORMAL  DIRECTION 


MINIMUM  AMOUNT  OF 
TIME  FOR  PLAY,  QAME8 
FREE  CHOICE  OF  OCCU 
PAT  ION 


1B 


Heightened  color,  deepened  breathing,  acceler- 
ated heartbeat,  joyous  emotion,  muscular 
movements,  are  all  present*  The  recreational 
value  of  professional  baseball  to  the  spectators 
is  due  not  alone  to  a  shifting  of  attention  from 
ordinary  channels  to  the  game  but  also  to  a 
genuine  participation,  to  a  degree,  in  all  the 
emotions  and  movements  of  the  players  them- 
selves 

Practical  Application  —  Games  serve  a  fun- 
damental need  in  education,  physically,  men- 
tally, morally,  and  socially  and  should  be  re- 
garded as  essential  to  a  school  curriculum 
For  that  portion  of  a  community  not  in  educa- 
tional institutions,  adequate  play  facilities  are 
as  truly  necessary  for  social  order  and  civic 
progress  as  our  lecture  halls,  reading  rooms, 
libraries,  and  museums. 


Time  to  be  given  to  Plays  and  Games.  —  The 

following  diagram  suggests  the  amount  of  time 
that  might  profitably  be  given  to  plays  and 
games  at  different  ages. 

Selection  of  Games  —  Games  should  be  se- 
lected to  meet  the  peculiar  needs  and  oppor- 
tunities of  the  successive  periods  of  develop- 
ment. Physically,  they  should  further  the 
best  physiological  growth  at  the  period  of  their 
most  rapid  development.  Mentally,  they 
should  provide  expression  for  the  nascent  in- 
terests and  emotions  of  the  period.  Morally, 
they  should  stimulate  conduct  in  accord  with 
the  elemental  virtues  and  ideals  toward  which 
there  is  an  instinctive  response  Socially,  they 
should  involve  an  expression  of  the  social  in- 
terests and  the  form  of  social  organization 
adapted  to  the  stage  of  development 

The  following  chart  may  prove  suggestiVe  in 
relation  to  the  choice  of  games  G  E  ,1 

For  philosophical  theory  of  games,  see  PLAY 

References :  — 

BADMINTON    Library  of  Sports  and  Pashmen    (London  ) 

BANCROFT,  .1  H  Games  for  the  Playground,  Hotnt , 
tichool,  and  Gymnasium  (New  York,  1909 ) 

BARKER,  ,1  S  Games  for  the  Playground  (London. 
1910) 

BEL&ZE,  G      Jeux  des  Adolescents      (Paris,  1891  ) 

BENSON,  ,T  K  The  Book  of  Indoor  Games.  (Phila- 
delphia, 1904  ) 

The  Book    of    Sports    and  Pastime*       (Philadelphia, 
1907) 

CHAMPLJN,  J  D  ,  and  BOHTWICK,  A  E  Young  FolkS 
Cydopedm  of  Games  and  Sports  (New  York, 
1H99) 

CRAWFORD,  C  Folk  Dances  and  Games  (New  York, 
1908) 

GODFREY,  E  English  Children  in  the  Olden  Time* 
(London,  1907  ) 

GOMME,  A  13  The  Tiaditional  Games  of  England, 
Scotland,  and  Ireland  Dictionary  of  British  Folk- 
lore (London,  18<44-  1S9K  ) 

Jahrbuch  fur  Yolks-  und  Juyt  ndt>/n<  It  (heiausgi'gHx'n  \  on 
H  \\ickenhagen),  Vol  XV  (Leipzig,  1900) 

KmuRLAND,  MKH  BURTON  Th(  Kooi  ol  Jndooi  and 
Outdoor  Games  (New  Yoik,  1(H)4  ) 

KREUNZ,  FKANZ  B<  uegunospul  und  \\ettkfanpfe 
(Graz,  1897  ) 

NEWELL,  W  W  Game*  and  Songi*  of  American  Chil- 
dren (New  York,  1903  ) 

NucjENT,  MEREDITH  New  Games  and  Amusements 
(New  York,  1905  ) 

PotiLHSON,  A   E      Finger  Play\      (Boston,  1893  ) 

Spalding's    Athletie    Library    Publications      American 

Sports  Publishing  Co.     (New  York  ) 
See  also  the  references  under  ATHLETICS  ,  GYMNASTICS  ; 
PHYSICAL  EDUCATION,  PLAY,  etc 


GAMES,  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  —  SIM*  Pm 

GAMMON  THEOLOGICAL  SEMINARY, 
ATLANTA,  GA  —  An  institution  for  the  train- 
ing of  ministers  for  the  Methodist  Church 
The  A  B  degree  is  required  from  candidates 
who  wish  to  proceed  to  the  degree  of  bachelor 
of  divinity  Diplomas  and  certificates  are 
granted  for  shorter  courses 


GANGLION  —  A  group  of  nerve  cells      See 
NERVOUS  SYSTEM. 


9 


GARDENS 


GARDENS 


GARDENS,  SCHOOL;  GARDENS  FOR 
CHILDREN  —  Most  gardens  which  arc  defi- 
nitely planned  with  reference  to  the  education 
of  groups  of  children  are  under  the  manage- 
ment of  schools,  and  hence  are  usually  known 
as  school  gardens.  In  America  and  England 
many  excellent  gardens  are  conducted  for 
similar  educational  ends,  but  quite  indepen- 
dently of  schools  Hence  the  term  school  garden 
has  come  to  be  applied  rather  loosely  to  any 
children's  garden  designed  for  educational  pur- 
poses, especially  for  teaching  about  plants  and 
methods  of  gardening  by  the  active  or  labora- 
tory method  This  latter  qualification  distin- 
guishes school  gardens  from  botanical  gardens, 
which  are  usually  of  educational  value  to 
children  in  that  they  exhibit  plants  merely  for 
observation 

As'to  the  definite  educational  aims  of  school 
gardens,  the  great  majority  of  those  m  con- 
tinental Europe  were  originally  intended  for 
teaching  practical  gardening  and  agriculture  as 
a  phase  of  vocational  education;  and  there  is 
developing  a  similar  tendency  in  some  villages 
and  rural  districts  of  America  arid  England 
But  the  great  majority  of  school  gardens  in 
America  and  England  and  many  in  various 
countries  of  the  continent  of  Europe  are  now 
being  conducted  as  a  phase  of  nature  study 
with  a  general  cultural  rather  than  vocational 
aim.  Probably  nine  out  of  ten  of  the  children 
who  have  worked  in  American  school  gardens 
in  the  past  ten  years  lived  in  towns  and  cities 
and  had  little  prospect  of  ever  engaging  in  the 
business  of  raising  plants  for  market;  so  that 
the  gardens  have  obviously  not  developed  in 
response  to  stimulation  by  the  growing  agricul- 
tural phase  of  vocational  education,  but  are 
now  conducted  simply  as  a  very  practical  part 
of  the  larger  nature  study  or  general  science 
movement  which  aims  to  present  the  scientific 
study  of  common  natural  objects  arid  processes 
from  the  point  of  view  of  general  elementary 
education.  Only  a  relatively  limited  number 
of  gardens  in  rural  districts  in  America  have 
been  definitely  modified  to  meet  the  demands 
of  agricultural  education,  and  this  chiefly  for 
specially  selected  pupils  of  high  school  age 

In  many  cities  in  the  United  States,  notably 
at  Cleveland,  O.,  children's  gardens  have  been 
made  at  the  homes  of  individual  pupils,  but 
under  the  guidance  of  a  teacher  who  gives 
general  directions  at  school,  and  occasionally 
makes  a  tour  of  inspection  On  the  whole,  the 
results  from  home  gardens  have  been  far  more 
satisfactory  than  from  school  gardens,  prob- 
ably because  of  the  great  personal  interest 
which  children  take  in  home  gardens,  and 
because  the  gardens  have  a  definite  influence 
in  stimulating  the  desire  to  beautify  home 
surroundings  School  gardens  are,  however, 
needed  for  giving  practical  lessons  before  the 
pupils  attempt  to  make  gardens  at  home;  and 
it  seems  to  be  the  consensus  of  opinion  that 
schools  should  maintain  gardens  of  limited  size 


10 


for  teaching  purposes  while  encouraging  the 
development  of  home  gardening  as  far  as  pos- 
sible 

Two  general  plans  have  been  tried  in  school 
gardens:  the  individual-ownership  system,  and 
the  community  system  Under  the  first  plan 
the  garden  is  divided  into  plots  which  become 
the  property  of  the  individual  pupils  for  a 
season,  and  the  owners  have  absolute  control 
of  the  produce  Under  the  community  system 
the  produce  of  the  garden  is  either  used  for 
lessons  in  the  school  or  is  sold  and  the  proceeds 
devoted  to  the  school  library,  a  hospital,  sick 
children,  or  some  other  altruistic  purpose 
The  first  plan  is  the  easier  to  administer;  the 
second  gives  greater  results  The  two  plans 
have  been  combined  in  some  gardens,  for  ex- 
ample, by  growing  vegetables  in  plots  controlled 
by  individuals,  and  flowers  in  community  plots, 
in  the  working  of  which  all  pupils  cooperate 

Comemus,  Rousseau,  Pestalozzi,  and  Froebel 
recommended  the  development  of  children's 
gardens  for  educational  purposes  In  the  first- 
half  of  the  nineteenth  century  the  educational 
authorities  of  several  German  states  introduced 
gardening  into  rural  schools,  and  the  move- 
ment later  extended  to  many  city  schools 
Berlin  has  large  grounds  outside  the  city  limits, 
and  any  child  may  have  space  for  a  small 
garden  Several  German  cities  do  not  place 
emphasis  upon  work  by  the  pupils,  but  have 
botanical  gardens  for  instruction  by  observa- 
tion and  for  supplying  nature-study  materials 
to  the  schools  In  short,  the  German  city 
schools  maintain  gardens  for  general  educa- 
tional rather  than  Tor  vocational  purposes. 
Following  the  example  of  German  gardens, 
Sweden.  Austria,  Belgium,  Holland,  France, 
Switzerland,  and  Russia  have  given  official  en- 
couragement to  school  gardens  within  the  past 
fifty  years.  In  these  countries  the  rural 
schools  have  been  encouraged  to  establish 
gardens,  and  in  the  beginning  the  aim  seems 
to  have  been  entirely  vocational.  The  total 
number  of  gardens  connected  with  schools  on 
the  continent  of  Europe  is  now  over  100,000 
Switzerland  requires  special  training  in  garden- 
ing in  the  normal  schools,  and  since  1885  has 
subsidized  elementary-school  gardens.  For 
more  than  thirty  years  every  rural  school  in 
Belgium  has  had  a  garden,  and  the  training  in 
gardening  is  believed  to  have  been  invaluable 
in  relation  to  the  chief  industry  of  the  country. 
The  normal  schools  of  France  teach  agriculture 
and  gardening,  and  it  is  estimated  that  over 
40,000  schools  have  gardens  It  is  an  open 
question,  however,  whether  a  large  proportion 
of  these  have  been  of  much  value  to  the  pupils. 
Russia  has  encouraged  gardening  for  more 
than  twenty  years,  and  many  schools  assign 
small  gardens  to  individual  pupils.  The  normal 
schools  teach  gardening,  and  special  courses 
have  been  given  to  teachers  In  Holland  the 
small  children  have  gardens,  apparently  in- 
tended for  nature  study,  rather  than  for  tram- 


The  Colorado  State  Normal. 


Brooklyn  Tiuant  School. 


A  Girls'  Sdiool,  Leipzig,  Germany. 


Garden  of  a  Bo\s'  School,  Plauen,  Geirnany 


School  Garden,  Batae,  Ilocos  Norte,  Philippine 
Islands. 


Studying  Aiboricultuie  and  Agriculture,  Graiimont, 
Belgium. 


SCHOOL  GAHDKNS. 


GARDENS 


GARDENS 


ing  in  the  business  of  gardening  Italy  has 
within  recent  years  shown  interest  in  school  gar- 
dens Ten  years  ago  there  were  less  than  a  hun- 
dred gardens  in  Great  Britain,  and  these  not 
officially  connected  with  the  school  system 
Since  1904  gardening  has  been  encouraged  by 
special  grants  to  the  schools  Many  gardens 
have  been  established  in  connection  with  ele- 
mentary day  schools,  and  also  in  evening 
schools  for  pupils  who  must  work  during  tho 
day  In  the  day  schools  tho  nature  study  aims 
seem  to  prevail,  but  the  gardens  are  expected 
to  have  a  vocational  influence  England  has 
been  often  criticized  for  slow  development  of 
school  gardens,  but  it  should  be  noted  that  a 
widespread  popular  interest  in  home  gardening 
has  probably  been  a  good  substitute  for  hun- 
dreds of  the  inefficient  school  gardens  estab- 
lished officially  on  the  continent  of  Europe 

In  Canada  interest  in  school  gardens  has 
developed  rapidly  in  the  past  ten  years  In 
1905  there  were  more  than  a  hundred  gardens  in 
Nova  Scotia  under  the  direction  of  the  super- 
intendent of  education  for  the  province  In 
each  of  the  other  eastern  provinces  five  gardens 
were  established  in  connection  with  the  Mac- 
donald  schools  in  1904  Many  other  gardens 
are  now  an  established  part  of  the  school  work, 
and  the  schools  receive  special  grants  from 
the  education  departments  There  are  many 
school  gardens  in  the  Northwest  Territories 

Most  of  the  gardens  in  the  United  States 
have  been  organized  during  the  past  ten  years 
Among  the  pioneer  gardens  which  attracted  gen- 
eral attention  were  the  wild  flower  garden  at  Kox- 
bury,  Mass  ,  in  1891;  the  gardens  of  the  Na- 
tional Cash  Register  Company,  at  Dayton,  Ohio, 
1897;  at  the  Hyanius  (Mass  )  Normal  School, 
1897;  the  home  gardens  at  Cleveland, Ohio,  1900; 
the  Hartford  (Conn  )  School  of  Horticulture, 
1900;  at  Hampton  Institute  (Va),  and  the 
Children's  School  Farm  in  New  York  City, 
1902.  Most  cities  have  school  gardens,  but 
they  are  usually  fostered  by  individuals  or 
organizations  independently  of  official  connec- 
tion with  the  schools  As  examples  of  such 
outside  encouragement  of  gaidens  the  follow- 
ing have  been  prominent:  Home  Gardening 
Association  of  Cleveland,  Massachusetts  Hor- 
ticultural Society,  Twentieth  Century  Club  of 
Boston,  Woman's  Institute  of  Yonkers,  Massa- 
chusetts Civic  League,  Missouri  Botanical  Gar- 
den, National  Cash  Register  Company,  Vacant 
Lot  Cultivation  Association,  United  States  De- 
partment of  Agriculture,  numerous  local  agri- 
cultural societies,  and  the  Park  Department  of 
New  York  City  In  only  a  few  cities  have 
boards  of  education  helped  financially  The 
Philadelphia  school  system  maintains  some 
gardens,  but  private  individuals  and  organiza- 
tions outside  the  system  have  been  active  with 
smaller  gardens  in  that  city  Cleveland, 
Rochester,  and  a  few  other  cities  officially  pro- 
vide funds  for  gardens  as  part  of  the  work  of 
schools.  Many  other  cities  and  towns  recog- 


nize gardening  as  part  of  the  course  in  nature 
study,  but  do  not  provide  for  the  material 
basis  for  conducting  the  gardens  needed  to 
carry  out  the  school  program.  The  vast 
majority  of  the  school  gardens  in  the  United 
States  are  still  officially  independent  of  schools 
and  conducted  on  the  personal  responsibility 
of  teachers,  principals,  and  others  who  are 
interested  in  the  school  garden  movement.  As 
an  example  of  good  results  in  spite  of  lack  of 
official  encouragement,  New  York  City  has 
over  eighty  scliolo  gardens,  many  on  school 
grounds,  but  conducted  by  enthusiastic;  mem- 
bers of  the  New  York  School  Gardening  Asso- 
ciation without  appropriations  from  school 
funds  In  fact,  most  school  gardens  in  the 
United  States  outside  the  largest  cities  need 
little  financial  help  from  the  school  authorities, 
for  in  most  places  land  is  available,  the  pupilh 
do  the  work,  the  seeds  cost  little  and  the 
produce  will  pay  for  them,  and  an  energetic 
director  can  usually  find  ways  and  means  for 
collecting  the  necessary  tools  There  is  prob- 
ably an  ad\antage  in  that  gardens  without  the 
financial  support  of  schools  tend  to  develop  the 
resourcefulness  of  the  individual  pupils  and  to 
awaken  the  interests  of  their  parents  and 
friends  Instruction  in  methods  of  gardening 
offers  no  special  difficulties  now  that  garden- 
ing is  commonly  recognized  as  a  very  important 
phase  of  nature  study  and  science,  and  hence 
propei ly  comes  under  the  direction  of  teachers 
of  those  subjects  The  common  result  is  that 
the  garden  work  is  used  and  correlated  m  the 
classrooms  much  more  than  would  be  possible 
by  special  garden  teachers  The  fact  is  that 
throughout  the  United  States  there  is  little 
demand  for  special  appropriations  for  school 
gardens,  except  for  modest  equipment  for  tools 
Much  more  important  is  the  official  recognition 
of  gardening  as  a  phase  of  nature  study  and 
therefore  a  legitimate  part  of  the  regular  work 
of  teachers  assigned  to  the  classes  in  that 
subject 

The  care  of  school  gardens  during  the  long 
summer  vacation  is  a  difficult  problem  which 
has  retarded  the  general  success  of  the  move- 
ment A  hired  gardener  is  undesirable,  for  in 
his  work  the  pupils  have  little  interest  School 
gardens  will  be  most  useful  if  conducted  by 
the  pupils  and  for  the  pupils  of  the  school 
The  most  satisfactory  plan,  judged  by  educa- 
tional results  and  pupils'  interest,  is  the  com- 
mittee4 system  This  means  that  the  director 
of  the  garden  appoints  groups  of  pupils  as 
committees  charged  with  the  care  of  the  entire 
garden  for  set  periods  during  the  vacation,  and 
required  to  report  to  the  school  in  September. 
Some  voluntary  supervision  by  interested 
adult  citizens  is  usually  possible,  especially 
where  there  is  some  local  society  uhieh  is 
interested  in  the  garden  movement 

With  legal  d  to  the  general  educational 
influence  of  school  gardens,  it  has  been  claimed 
by  numerous  teachers  that  many  pupils  make 


11 


GARDENS 


GAUDEAMUS  IGITUR 


more  rapid  progress  in  their  book  studies  after 
being  aroused  by  the  garden  work  Such  in- 
creased efficiency  has  been  found  to  have  an 
indirect  moral  influence,  and  in  many  cities 
the  boys  engaged  in  gardening  seem  to  have 
lost  their  former  interest  in  mischief  making, 
perhaps  because  their  time  has  been  occupied 
with  the  interesting  work  of  the  gardens 
Probably  a  large  part  of  the  advantages 
claimed  for  manual  training  as  a  phase  of  edu- 
cation applies  to  school  garden  work,  and  there 
is  the  additional  gain  from  the  garden  in  that 
the  work  is  in  the  open  air  and  combined  with 
nature  study.  Under  such  conditions  the  gar- 
den may  become  a  most  important  agency  for 
healthy  recreation,  for  developing  an  interest 
in  nature,  and  for  giving  the  pupil  direct  con- 
tact with  a  phase  of  industrial  education, 
which  may  be  of  vocational  value  to  some,  but 
of  far  greater  importance  to  the  many,  in  that 
it  gives  them  a  sense  of  personal  relationship 
with  that  vadt  part  of  the  world's  work  which 
is  centered  around  the  cultivation  of  plants  for 
human  use  This  tendency  of  gardens  to 
develop  a  personal  interest  in  plant  growing 
outside  of  the  plot  controlled  by  the  pupil  is 
so  marked  that  several  societies  concerned  with 
the  beautifying  of  cities  by  encouraging  the 
cultivation  of  plants  in  both  private  and  public 
Bounds,  wherever  possible,  have  officially  recog- 
nized school  gardens  as  very  important  factors 
in  developing  personal  responsibility  for  better 
civic  conditions  No  doubt  a  garden  can  be 
made  very  helpful  in  this  direction,  but  the 
result  will  come  from  the  teaching  and  not  from 
mere  digging  in  the  soil  In  fact,  the  value  of 
merely  working  in  the  garden  has  been  over- 
estimated, and  the  future  efficiency  of  gardens 
as  part  of  general  education  will  depend  upon 
lessons  which  are  drawn  from  materials  and 
conditions  available  in  well-managed  school 
gardens  The  purpose  of  school-gardens  is  not 
simply  to  raise  plants,  but  rather  to  use  the 
methods  of  gardening  and  the  growing  of  plants 
as  a  concrete  basis  for  one  phase  of  education 
Judged  by  this  standard,  a  large  number  of 
gardens  for  children  are  not  yet  real  school 
gardens  or  educational  gardens,  for  efficient 
instruction  is  not  given  the  pupils  M  A  B 

References :  — 

BALDWIN,  W.  H.     Industrial-Social  Education      (Spring- 
field, Mass ,  1907 ) 
DAVIS,  B.  M.     School  Gardens  for  California  Schools. 

(Chico,  Cal ,  1906  ) 
GREENE,  M   L     Among  School  Gardens      (New  York, 

1910) 
HBMENWAY,    H     D      How   to    make   School   Gardens 

(New  York,  1903  ) 
JEWELL,  J.  R     Agricultural  Education      U.  S.  Bureau 

of  Education      Bulletin  No  368,  1907 
LOGAN,  A     School  Gardens  as  a  Means  of  Education 

School  World      (London,  1911,  Nov  pp  421-424  ) 
MILLER,    L     K.     Children's    Gardens      (New    York, 

1908.) 
Nature    Study    Review      Manv    articles      New    York, 

1905-1910. 
PARSONS,    H.    G.     Children's    Gardms    for    Pleasure, 

Health,  and  Education      (New  York,  1910 ) 


12 


United  States  Dept  of  Agriculture.     Several  Bulletins, 

(Washington ) 
WEED,  C  M  ,  and  EMEKSON,  P.     School  Garden  Book 

(New  York,  1909  ) 
Also  chapters  in  references  under  NATURJB  STUDY  to 

Bailey,  Coulter,  Dearness,  Hodge,  Holtz. 

GARDENS     AND     GARDENING.  —  See 

BOTANIC  GARDENS;  HORTICULTURE,  EDUCA- 
TION IN;  GARDENS,  SCHOOL. 

GARFIELD,  JAMES  ABRAM  (1831-1881). 
—  Statesman  and  educator,  graduated  from 
Williams  College  in  the  class  of  1856.  He  was 
professor  in  Hiram  College  for  three  years,  and 
president  of  the  college  four  years.  As  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Congress  of  the  United  States  he 
took  an  active  interest  in  educational  legisla- 
tion, and  was  largely  responsible  for  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  Bureau  of  Education.  His 
Speeches  on  Education  (Boston,  1882)  include 
his  most  important  contributions  to  the  litera- 
ture of  education.  W.  S.  M. 

Reference :  — 

HINSDALE,   B.   A.     Oarfidd  and   Education.     (Boston, 

1882) 

GARLAND,  LANDON  CABELL  (1810- 
1895)  —  College  president,  educated  at  Hamp- 
den-Sidney  College.  He  was  professor  of 
mathematics  in  Washington  (Va )  College, 
Randolph-Macon  College,  the  University  of 
Alabama,  and  the  University  of  Mississippi, 
and  president  of  Randolph-Macon  College  and 
Vanderbilt  University.  Author  of  textbooks 
on  mathematics  W  S.  M. 

GAUDEAMUS  IGITUR  —  Probably  the 
best  known  as  well  as  the  most  frequently  sung 
of  student  songs  in  the  world  The  origin  of 
this  famous  poem  was  long  in  doubt,  but  pains- 
taking German  research  has  established  the 
fact  that  in  its  present  form  it  does  not  go  back 
much  beyond  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth 
century.  Those  who,  guided  solely  by  the 
content  of  the  song,  would  refer  it  back  to  the 
whimsical  laments  over  the  vanity  of  human 
wishes  and  the  advice  to  "eat,  drink,  and  be 
merry,  for  to-morrow  we  die  "  found  in  the  songs 
of  the  Goliards  (q  v. ;  see  also  the  article  on 
CARMINA  BURANA),  may  find  some  satisfaction 
in  the  fact  that  the  basic  element  in  the  Gau- 
deamus has  been  traced  back  to  a  song  found 
m  a  French  Ms  of  1267  This  is  a  penitential 
psalm,  in  which  the  following  lines  occur: — 

Vita  brevis,  brevitas  in  brevi  finietur ; 
Mors  venit  velociter  et  neminem  veretur. 
Ubi  sunt  qui  ante  nos  in  hoc  mundo  fuere  ? 
Venies  ad  tumulos,  BI  COB  vis  videre, 

which  will  be  recognized  as  parts  of  the  modern 
Gaudeamus.  But  there  seems  to  have  been 
a  number  of  songs  which  opened,  at  any  rate, 
with  the  word  Gaudeamus.  On  this  account 
probably  the  well-known  verses  have  been  re- 
ferred to  a  greater  antiquity  than  they  deserve. 


GAUSS 


GELASIUS 


Sebastian  Brandt  in  the  Ship  of  Fools  (ch. 
108)  refers  to  the  Gaudeamus,  and  a  woodcut 
in  the  edition  of  1494  represents  the  ship  of 
fools  and  the  words  Gaudeamus  Omnes  issuing 
from  the  mouth  of  one  of  the  passengers, 
written  in  a  notation  which  does  not  call  up 
the  modern  tune  Hans  Sachs,  in  a  poem 
written  in  1568,  also  refers  to  a  Gaudeamus. 
But  none  of  these  continues  with  the  vigorous 
and  meaningful  igitur. 

The  earliest  known  Latin  version  (there  is 
a  version  in  German  by  ,)  C  Gunther,  written 
in  1717,  beginning  Brudcr  lasst  ana  lustig  sem) 
of  the  modern  Gaudeamus  is  found  in  a  (Ms) 
copy  of  student  songs  in  the  Royal  Library  at 
Berlin,  which  was  written  before  1750.  The 
version  is  as  follows. — 

Gaudeamub  igitur 
Juvcnos  dura  sum  us  , 
Post  mnleutum  srnoctutcm 
Nos  huhehit  tumulus. 
Ubi  sunt  qui  ante  nos 
In  niundo  vixero  ? 
Abeas  ad  tumulos, 
Si  vis  hos  vidore 
Vita  nostril  brovis  est, 
Bro\i  fimetur, 
Wmt  mora  vclociter, 
Nommem  vcrotur. 

On  tho  basis  of  this  the  other  versions  arose, 
each  body  of  students  adding  something  new 
or  topical,  or  eliminating  something  A  Latin 
and  German  version  is  found  in  a  Jena  Ms  of 
1776,  showing  that,  theio  was  reason  in  the 
or  dor  issued  at  Hallo  by  tho  university  authori- 
ties, forbidding  tho  singing  of  the  song  on  ac- 
count of  its  degrading  vulgarity  The  verses 
woro  rescued  from  the  mire,  howevor,  in  1781, 
by  C  W  Kmdlebon,  at  one  time  pastor,  um- 
versitv  docont,  and  assistant  teacher  under 
Basodow  at  tho  Philanthropmum  at  Dessau 
Kmdleben's  leputation  was  riot  of  the  best; 
he  lost  ovoiy  position  ho  hold  through  his 
dissolute  ways  But  it  was  this  man  who 
cleansed  tho  Gaudeamun  of  its  obscenities  and 
published  it  with  a  translation  m  its  present 
form  in  Studcntenhedcr  Aus  den  hintcrlas- 
wnen  Papicrcn  cuies  ungluckhchen  Philosophen, 
Flondo  genatint,  gesannnelt  und  verbesscrt  von 
C  W  K  1781  Aftor  tho  student  revival 
which  took  place  about  1813,  tho  song  found 
its  way  nipidly  into  all  the  student  song  books 
and  Commors-books,  until  it  became  the  prop- 
erty of  students  m  universities  and  schools 
the  world  over 

References :  — 

SCHWETCHKE,  GusTAV      Zur  Geschichtc  des  Gaudeamus- 

igitur      (Halle,  1877  ) 
SYMONDS,  J   A      Wine,  Women  and  Song      (Portland, 

Me.,  1899  )     Contains  an  English  translation 

GAUSS,    KARL    FRIEDRICH  —  One    of 

the  foremost  mathematicians  and  astronomers 
of  the  nineteenth  century  He  was  born  on 
Apr.  30, 1777,  at  Brunswick,  Germany,  and  died 
on  Fob.  23,  1855,  at  Gottingen  He  was  edu- 


13 


cated  at  Gottingen,  and  in  1807  he  became 
professor  of  mathematics  arid  director  of  the 
observatory  in  that  university  To  him  more 
than  to  any  other  one  person  is  due  the  promi- 
nence that  Gottingen  attained  in  the  nine- 
teenth century  as  the  mathematical  center  of 
Germany  There  was  no  field  of  mathematical 
activity  in  which  he  was  not  interested,  and 
in  most  of  those  that  were  open  in  his  time  he 
was  a  successful  worker  The  number  of  his 
contributions  was  ver^y  great,  notably  in  the 
theory  of  numbers,  theory  of  electricity  and 
magnetism,  the  interpretation  of  complex  num- 
bers, and  mathematical  astronomy  DES. 

GAZA,  THEODORE  (1400-1475)  —  Greek 
scholar  and  teacher  of  the  Renaissance  period, 
who  came  to  Italy  about  1440  Introduced 
to  Vittormo  da  Foltro  (r/  v  )  by  Filelfo  (qv),  he 
studied  Latin  under  him  and  taught  Greek 
and  copied  Mas.  in  his  school  at  Mantua  In 
1444  he  became  tho  first  public  professor  of 
Greek  at  Fcrrara,  and  lectured  on  Demosthenes. 
In  1457  he  was  summoned  by  Nicholas  V  to 
Rome,  where  he  taught  Greek  and  assisted  m 
translating  some  of  the  Greek  classics  In 
1455  he  translated  books  for  King  Alfonso 
of  Naples;  he  later  returned  to  Rome,  which 
he  again  left  before  his  death,  which  occurred 
in  a  monastery  in  Lucama  Gaza  wroto  a 
Greek  Grammar  (y/oa/ufum/ci;  eicrayajy?;),  which 
Erasmus  used  at  Cambridge  and  translated 
into  Latin  and  Budseus  used  at  Puns  Copies 
of  the  Iliad  written  by  Gaza  are  still  extant 
one  in  Florence  and  the  other  in  Venice 
In  the  controversy  on  thci  superiority  of  Plato 
and  Aristotle,  Gaza  stfronglv  defended  the 
latter,  several  of  whoso  works  he  translated 

References :  — 

SANDYS,  J   E      History  of  Classical  Scholarship,  Vol   II. 

(Cambridge,  1908  ) 
WOODWARD,  W    H       Vittonno  da  Fcltre      (C'anihndgr, 

1905) 

GELASIUS  —Bishop  of  Rome  (492-496), 
and  author  of  the  Decretum  Grla^u  <le  7i6n.s 
rccipiendis  et  non  recipi^ndi^  The  importance 
of  Pope  Golasms  in  tho  history  of  education 
is  due  entirely  to  his  famous  decree  on  the 
canonical  books  of  tho  Bible  and  the  authori- 
tative and  approved  writings  of  the  Fathers 
of  tho  Church  The  decree  differs  from  later 
indexes  of  books  in  that  it  not  only  gave  a  list 
of  books  which  were  condemned,  but  also  a  list 
of  books  which  were  approved  as  standards  of 
orthodoxy  The  decree  was  issued  at  a  Ro- 
man synod  held  by  Gel  asms,  but  in  its  present 
form  it  contains  material  much  earlier  and  has 
been  subjected  to  various  interpolations  The 
final  section,  however,  which  gives  the  list  of 
books  to  be  received  or  rejected,  was,  with  the 
exception  of  manifest  interpolations,  the  work 
of  Gelasius  By  passing  judgment  upon  earlier 
writers  determining  which  should  be  regarded 
as  setting  the  norm  for  orthodoxy,  the  decree 


GEMMA  FRISIUS 


GENERAL   EDUCATION  BOARD 


undoubtedly  affected  profoundly  the  course 
of  studies  in  the  Church  Among  other  effects 
of  the  decree  was  the  elimination  of  the  older 
Alcxundune  influence,  eg  that  of  Clement  of 
Alexandria  (q  v  )  It  did  not  become  geneially 
known  m  the  Chinch  till  some  time  after 
Gelasms,  it  was  not  until  two  hundred  years 
after  its  publication  that  it  is  quoted,  and  not 
until  860  that  it  was  connected  with  the  name  of 
Gelasius  From  that  time  on  its  influence  was 
constantly  frit  J.  C.  A.  Jr 

See  LITERARY  CENSORSHIP. 

References :  — 

IlkFKLE,  C      Conalicnoe&chichte     See    217      (Freiburg, 

1855-1890) 
MANSI      Concilia,  Vol    VIII      (Florence,  1759-1798 ) 

GEMMA  FRISIUS  (1 508  -1555)  —  The  fam- 
ily name  of  (lemma  the  Frisian  was  Rainer 
or  Kegmcr  He  was  born  at  Dockum,  m  East 
Friesland,  on  Dec  8,  1508,  and  died  at  Lou  vain 
on  May  25,  1555  He  was  a  physician,  holding 
the  chair  of  professor  of  medicine  at  Louvam, 
but  he  is  better  known  as  one  of  the  leading 
textbook  writers  of  his  century  m  France  on 
arithmetic-  and  astronomy  His  most  famous 
textbook  is  the  Mctliodus  arithmetics  practices 
(Antwerp,  1540),  of  which  there  were  at  least 
fifty-nine  editions  before  1601  Tie  also  wrote 
upon  astronomy,  and  first  suggested  the  idea 
of  finding  longitude  by  the  help  of  a  chronom- 
eter in  his  DC  principns  astronomic  (Paris, 
1547)  His  influence  upon  arithmetic  was 
more  marked  than  that  of  any  other  Latin 
wiiter  of  his  century  His  son,  Cornells  (1535- 
1577),  was  professor  of  medicine  and  astronomy 
at  Louvam,  and  wrote  on  astronomy  and 
philosophy  D.  E.  S. 

GENERAL  EDUCATION  BOARD    —  An 

organization  chartered  by  Congress  m  1903 
and  originating  with  Mr  John  D.  Rocke- 
feller's Committee  on  Benevolence  The  plan 
of  such  an  organization  was  designed  and 
adapted  to  assist  Mr  Rockefeller  in  distribut- 
ing his  gifts  to  education,  but  it  was  also  in- 
tended to  meet  a  wider  need  and  to  afford 
a  medium  through  which  other  men  of  means, 
who  desired  to  piomote  education  in  the  United 
States,  could  do  so  in  a  systematic,  intelligent, 
and  effective  \\ay  The  gentlemen  forming 
the  first  Board  were  the  late  William  H  Bald- 
win, Jr  ,  Wallace  Buttnck,  the  late  Hon  J  L. 
M  Curry,  Frederick  T  Gates,  Daniel  C  Gil- 
man,  Morris  K  Jesup,  Robeit  C  Ogden,  Walter 
H  Pago,  Ceoige  Foster  Peabody,  John  D 
Rockefeller,  Jr  ,  and  Albert  Shaw  The  gifts 
of  Mr  Rockefeller  to  the  Board  and  placed 
under  its  absolute  control  amount  to  $32,000- 
000.  Others  have  contributed  smaller  amounts, 
among  them  a  gift  of  $200  000  for  rural  negro 
education  by  the  late  Miss  Anna  T  Jearies 

The  work  of  the  General  Education  Board 
now  falls  into  four  mam  divisions:  — 

1.  The  promotion  of  practical  farming  in  the 


Southern  States  —  Through  the  United  State? 
Department  of  Agriculture,  under  an  agreement 
begun  in  the  year  1906,  the  Board  has  made  con- 
tributions for  this  work  aggregating  $405,700, 
The  method  employed  is  that  of  demonstration 
farms  There  are  now  (1911)  196  men  at  work 
supervising  demonstration  farms,  and  19,579 
farmers  are  pursuing  agricultural  methods 
under  such  direction  One  hundred  and  fifty- 
four  thousand  farmers  are  pursuing  similar 
work,  influenced  by  those  farmers  who  arc 
under  the  immediate  supervision  of  the  agents 
Nine  thousand  eight  hundred  and  fifty-nine 
boys,  from  twelve  years  of  age  and  up,  under 
the  general  designation  of  Boys'  Corn  Clubs, 
are  performing  practical  agricultural  demon- 
stration on  their  fathers'  farms,  and  are  making 
their  experiments  the  basis  of  agricultural 
study  in  the  schools 

2  The  promotion  of   public  high   schools    in 
the  Southern  States  —  The  General   Education 
Board  appropriates  to    each    state   university 
or  to  the  state  department  of  education  a  sum 
sufficient  to  pay  the  salary  and  traveling  ex- 
penses of  a  special  high  school  representative, 
who   arouses   and   organizes  public   sentiment 
favorable    to    public    high    schools,  and    who 
secures  the  establishment  and  maintenance  of 
public   high  schools      Since   the   beginning  of 
this  cooperation   on   the  pait  of  the   General 
Education  Board  with  state  universities    and 
state    departments    of    education,    703    new 
public    high    schools    have    been    established, 
$6,390,780  have  been  raised  by  the  people  of 
the  several  states  for  buildings  and  equipment, 
and  the  annual  sum  available  for  the  support 
of    public    high    schools    has    been    increased 
by  $1,332,667 

3  The  Promotion  of  Institutions  of  Higher 
Learning  —  The    General    Education    Board 
uniformly    makes    its    gifts    for    endowment 
Appropriations  by  the  Board  for  higher  edu- 
cation   have    been  made    as    follows*     In    the 
Southern   States,  $2,309,000;    in  the   Western 
States,  $2,510,000,    in  the  Eastern  and  Middle 
States,  $1,805,000      Total,  $6,624,000     These 
gifts  on  the  part  of    the    General    Education 
Board    make    up    an    approximate    total     of 
$25,406,000,  a   sum   which   represents   the  in- 
crease of  educational  endowment  and  equip- 
ment of  the  eighty-two  colleges  and  universities 
in  the  United  States  to  which  gifts  from  the 
Board  have  been  made  to  date  (1911) 

4  Negro  Education  —  The  Board  has  con- 
tributed   $473,239  76   to   schools   for   negroes 
In  this  connection  it  should  be  said  that  negro 
farmers  have  shared  fully  in  the  cooperative 
demonstration   work   described    above      It   is 
the  policy  of  the  General  Education  Board  to 
work  through  existing  institutions  and  agencies 
and  not  itself  to  undertake  independent  edu- 
cational work.  E.  C.  S. 

Reference :  — 

AYRES,  L    P    Seven  Great  Foundations.    (New  York, 
1911) 


14 


GENERAL  METHOD 


GENERIC  IMAGE 


GENERAL  METHOD.  —  Methods  of  teach- 
ing which  are  fundamental  to  all  the  school 
branches,  and  therefore  111  general  use,  are 
included  under  the  term  "  general  method." 
The  term  is  used  in  contradistinction  to 
"  special  method,"  which  is  applied  to  a  method 
used  only  in  a  single  subject  Sometimes 
"  principles  of  teaching  "  is  used  synonymously 
with  "  general  method/'  the  former  implying 
a  treatment  in  terms  of  theoretic  generaliza- 
tions or  laws,  and  the  latter  one  in  types  of 
practical  procedure.  H.  S. 

See  METHOD,  TEACHING;  SPECIAL  METHODS; 
TEACHING,  TYPES  OF;  TEACHING,  PRINCIPLES  OF 

GENERAL  TERM.  —  SEE  CONCEPT 

GENERAL   THEOLOGICAL    SEMINARY 

—  Established  by  the  General  Convention  of 
the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  in  tho  United 
States  in  1817  and  incorporated  in  1822      In- 
struction began  in  Now  York  in  1819      It  was 
removed  to  New  Haven,  Connecticut,  in  1820, 
but  returned  to  Now  York  in  1822      It  is  the 
only  seminary  in  the  Episcopal  Church  under 
tho  control  of  the  General  Convention      Tho 
buildings  include  a  largo  chapel,  lecture  hall, 
nine  dormitories,  library,  gymnasium,  refectory, 
and  nine  residences  for   dean    arid    professors 
The  halls  can  accommodate  150  students      In 
1911  there  were  143  students,  fifteen  professors 
and  instructors,  and  one  lecturer.     It  confers  no 
degree   on   graduation      The  degree  of  Bach- 
elor in  Divinity  is  conferred  for  graduate  work 
only.     The   degree    of    Doctor    in    Divinity    is 
conferred  for  work  required  or  honons  causa 
There    are    about    1800    graduates,    of    whom 
nearly  1000  are  living,  and  about  1000  former 
students  who  are  not  Alumni  O.  B.  Z. 

Sec  THEOLOGICAL  EDUCATION 

GENERALIZATION  —  The  process  by 
which  a  principle  or  law  is  reached,  the  term 
is  also  used  to  denote  the  product  Tho  term 
expresses  the  use  or  function  of  induction, 
which  endeavors,  beginning  with  a  number  of 
scattered  details,  to  arrive  at  a  general  state- 
ment Generalization  expresses  tho  natural 
goal  of  instruction  m  any  topic,  for  it  works 
a  measure  of  economy  and  efficiency  from 
the  standpoints  alike  of  observation,  mem- 
ory, and  thought  The  number  of  particu- 
lars that  can  be  obtained  is  limited  When, 
however,  different  eases  are  brought  together, 

—  and  this  bringing  together  is  expressed  in 
a  general  principle,  —  a  great  variety  of  cases 
are  practically  reduced  to  one  case,  and  further 
observation  is  freed  to  attack  'new  particular 
things    and     qualities    not    yet    systematized 
Exactly    the    same    holds    good    for    memory 
There  are  a  few  prodigies  who  can  carry  in  mind 
an    indefinite    number    of    unrelated    details; 
but  most  persons  need  the  help  of  generaliza- 
tions in   order  to  retain  special  facts  and  to 
recall  them  when  needed      Logically,  a  prin- 


ciple not  only  sums  up  and  registers  the  net 
intellectual  outcome  of  a  great  many  different 
experiences  which  have  been  undergone  at, 
diverse  times  and  places,  but  is  an  illuminating 
and  clarifying  means  of  interpreting  new  cases 
that  without  it  could  not  bo  understood 

Because  the  older  deductive,  classificatorv 
schemes  of  instruction  began  with  a  statement 
of  the  law  01  principle,  educational  reformers 
who  were  influenced  by  the  scientific  movement 
toward  induction  were  compelled  to  emphasize 
the  later  and  derived  place  occupied  bv 
generalization  in  the  intellectual  life  Zealots 
for  the  new  method  sometimes  swung  to  the 
extreme  of  reaction  against  universals,  and, 
treating  observation  and  imagination  of 
particulars  as  an  end  in  itself,  neglected  the 
importance  of  generalization  as  a  normal  ter- 
minus of  study  Another  educational  error 
is  to  suppose  that  generalization  is  a  single  and 
separate  act  coming  by  itself,  after  tho  mind 
has  been  exclusively  preoccupied  with  particular 
facts  and  events  To  the  contrary,  generaliza- 
tion is  a  continuous,  gradual  movement  away 
from  mere  isolated  particulars  toward  a  con- 
necting principle  A  necessary  part  of  the 
work  of  instruction  is,  therefore,  to  make 
the  conditions  such  that  the  mind  will  move 
in  the  direction  of  a  fruitful  generalization  as 
soon  as  it  begins  to  deal  with  and  to  collect 
particulars  The  resulting  generalization  will, 
of  course,  be  crude,  vague,  and  inadequate,  but, 
if  formed  under  proper  conditions,  it  will  servo 
at  once  to  direct  arid  vitalize  further  observa- 
tions and  recollections,  and  will  be  built  out 
and  tested  in  the  application  to  now  particulars 
This  suggests  the  final  educational  principle 
A  generalization  or  law  is  such  not  in  virtue 
of  its  structure  or  bare  content,  but  because  of 
its  use  or  function  We  do  not  first  have*  a 
principle  and  then  apply  it;  an  idea  becomes 
general  (or  a  principle)  in  process  of  fruitful 
application  to  the  interpretation,  compre- 
hension, and  prevision  of  the  particular  facts 
of  experience  J  D 

See  ABSTRACT  AND  CONCRETE,  CONCEPT, 
EMPIRICAL. 

GENERALIZED  HABITS  —See  HAHFI  ; 
also  FORMAL  DISCIPLINE;  ABILITY,  GENEK\L 
AND  SPECIAL 

GENERIC  IMAGE  —  When  one  sees  a  single 
object  and  remembers  it,  he  carries  a  way  a  more 
or  less  complete  reproduction  of  the  experience 
which  he  derives  through  contact  with  this  ob- 
ject. Tho  remembered  experience  is  in  the 
form  of  an  imago  After  contact  with  a  num- 
ber of  different  objects  closely  related  to  each 
other  m  character,  memory  reflects  certain  ele- 
ments and  drops  others  Those  characteristics 
which  are  common  to  all  of  the  .specimens  stand 
out  with  increasing  vmdness,  those  character- 
istics which  belong  to  single  individuals  tend 
to  be  obliterated  There  ansc*  in  this  fashion 


15 


GENETIC  METHOD 


GENIUS 


a  generic  imago  Sir  Francis  Gallon  used  the 
figure  of  a  composite  photograph  in  describing 
these  generic  mental  images  The  analogy  is 
undoubtedly  justified  in  certain  cases,  although 
it  IH  probable  that  very  few  such  images  arc 
used  by  the  ordinary  observer  in  his  common 
experience  C.  H.  J. 

See    GENERAL    IDEAS;     IDEATION;     IMAGE; 
MEMORY;  VISUALIZATION. 

References :  — 

HUXLLY,  T   H      Hume      (London,  1  SSI  ) 
CJAI/ION,   F      Jnt/uuu'ti  into  Human  Faculties.     (Appen- 
due  )     (New  \oik,  1883) 

GENETIC  METHOD  —  Mental  processes 
can  be  studied  by  a  variety  of  different  methods 
Thus,  they  may  be  analyzed  or  they  may  be 
studied  with  reference  to  their  relation  to  the 
general  life  processes  of  the  individual,  or, 
finally,  they  may  be  studied  with  reference  to 
their  development  and  the  development  of  the 
individual  who  possesses  them  The  relative 
level  of  evolution  reached  by  the  individual  may 
also  be  studied  Whenever  the  problem  of 
development  or  evolution  is  foremost  the  method 
of  treatment  is  said  to  be  the  genetic  method 
Thus  one  may  study  the  growth  of  a  tendency 
on  the  part  of  children  to  use  abstract  ideas 
The  growth  of  this  tendency  is  a  genetic  process, 
and  the  study  of  the  habit  constitutes  a  gen- 
etic problem  Again,  one  may  study  the  pres- 
ence of  ideas  in  animals  There  has  been  le- 
ccntly  an  increasing  tendency  to  recognize  the 
fact  that  psychology  can  be  productively  ap- 
plied to  education  only  through  the  working 
out  of  genetic  methods  In  some  cases  the 
term  " genetic"  has  been  used  in  a  limited  sense 
to  apply  to  the  special  problems  of  child  study; 
but  this  restriction  of  the  term  is  misleading, 
and  any  foim  of  study  of  mental  development 
or  mental  evolution  should  be  included  under 
the  term  "genetic"  C.  H.  J. 

See  CHILD  STUDY;  PSYCHOLOGY,  GENETIC 

References :  — 

JUDD,  C    H     Genetic  Psycholoay  for   Teachers.    (New 

York,  1903  ) 
KIRKPATRICK,  E    A     Genetic  Psychology.    (New  York. 

1909) 

GENETIC  PSYCHOLOGY.—  See  PSYCHOL- 
OGY, GENETIC. 

GENEVA. —  Sec   CALVINISTS  AND    EDUCA- 
TION; SWITZERLAND,  EDUCATION  IN. 

GENEVA    COLLEGE,    BEAVER    FALLS, 

PA  —  A  coeducational  institution  which  was 
opened  in  1849  by  the  Reformed  Presbyterian 
Church  of  North  America  at  Northfield,  Ohio, 
and  moved  to  its  present  location  in  1880. 
Preparatory,  collegiate,  music,  and  fine  arts 
departments  are  maintained  The  entrance 
requirements  are  equivalent  to  about  fourteen 
points  of  high  school  work  The  degrees  of 
Bachelor  of  Arts  and  Bachelor  of  Science  aie 
conferred  on  those  who  complete  the  require- 


ments, which  include  residence  for  at  least  three 
fourths  of  the  college  course  at  an  accredited 
college  with  the  senior  year  at  Geneva.  There 
is  a  faculty  of  twenty-three  members. 

GENEVA,  SWITZERLAND,  UNIVERSITY 

OF.  —  Established  in  1873,  being  the  outgrowth 
of  the  Academy  founded  by  the  Republic  of 
Geneva  in  the  yeai  1559  The  theological 
faculty  of  the  old  Academy  attained  a  period 
of  considerable  icnown  under  men  like  Calvin 
and  Bcza  During  the  stormy  days  of  the 
seventeenth  century  the  institution  entered 
upon  a  decline,  but  was  given  a  new  lease  of 
life  as  a  result  of  the  persecutions  of  the  Hu- 
guenots in  France,  the  Academy  gradually 
having  become  the  acknowledged  center  for 
the  dissemination  of  Protestant  culture  in 
French-speaking  territory.  From  1798  to  1814 
the  Academy  was  in  French  hands 

The  present  university  comprises  the  fac- 
ulties of  Protestant  theology,  law,  medicine 
(1876),  letters  and  social  science,  and  pure  sci- 
ence, the  language  of  instruction  being  French 
Affiliated  with  the  institution  arc  a  natural 
history  museum,  a  botanical  garden,  and  an 
observatory  The  library  contains  over  170,000 
volumes  and  about  1800  manuscripts  The 
University  of  Geneva  is  the  second  largest 
institution  of  higher  learning  in  the  Swiss  Con- 
federation, being  exceeded  m  the  number  of 
'students  only  by  Berne  During  the  winter 
semester  of  1909-1910  there  weir  enrolled  1915 
students,  of  whom  about  half  were  women 
Of  the  matriculated  students  only  23  wen* 
registered  in  the  theological  faculty,  while  the 
medical  school  attracts  the  largest  number  of 
students,  viz  ,  024,  including  372  women  As 
at  all  of  the  Swiss  universities,  the  numbei  of 
non-matriculated  students  is  relatively  large, 
130  men  and  327  women  R  T.,  JK 

Reference :  — 

BORGEAIID,  C  Hist(tire  de  rUniverettf  de  Grnin, 
Vol  I,  1550-1798  (Geneva,  1900)  Vol  11, 
1798-1814  (Geneva,  1909 ) 

GENIUS  —  A  term  used  somewhat  loosely 
to  indicate  the  highest  type  of  human  ability 
Below  genius  comes  the  grade  of  talent,  and 
below  talent  ordinary  ability  It  is  evident, 
however,  that  these  grades  arc  not  enough  to 
indicate  very  definitely  the  rank  of  any  in- 
dividual Gallon  in  his  study  of  hereditary 
genius  distinguishes  eight  classes  above  that  of 
ordinary  talent  Cattell  endeavors  to  detei- 
nune  by  a  statistical  study  of  biographical  dic- 
tionaries the  thousand  most  eminent  men  in 
history  These  he  ranges  in  regular  order  on 
the  basis  of  the  amount  of  attention  to  which 
each  was  deemed  worthy  by  the  various  editors. 
Thus  each  individual  is  given  a  specific  place 
instead  of  being  assigned  to  a  group  He  con- 
cludes that  the  ten  most  eminent  men  are  Shake- 
speare, Mahommed,  Napoleon,  Voltaire,  Bacon, 
Aristotle,  Goethe,  Caesar,  Luther,  and  Plato 


16 


GENIUS 


GENIUS 


Genius  is  more  commonly  tieatod  accoidmg 
!.o  tin1  special  soit  of  ability  m\  olved,  since  men 
may  show  the  highest  power  m  eeitam  fields 
and  he  commonplace  or  even  defective  in  other 
respects  The  loading  types  seem  to  bo  the 
artistic,  the  intellectual,  and  the  practical 
The  artistic  type  includes  literary  genius,  the 
intellectual  embraces  philosophic  and  scien- 
tific power,  while  the  practical  covers  such  fields 
as  statesmanship,  business  ability,  and  general- 
ship It  is  possible  that  outside  these  powers 
there  lies  another  group,  the  moral  and  religious 
ilowover,  m  so  far  as  these  gifts  involve  in- 
tellectual qualities,  they  are  allied  to  the  phil- 
osophic and  artistic  types  On  the  other  hand, 
they  are  usually  associated  with  intensity  of 
sympathy,  a  power  of  self-sacrificing  service, 
and  a  firmness  of  adherence  to  ideals  that  con- 
stitute of  them  a  somewhat  distinct  kind 

The  genius  may,  from  a  biological  point  of 
view,  be  regarded  as  a  vanant  from  type  It 
must  be  noted,  however,  that  his  vanation  is  in 
the  direction  of  extraordinary  now  efficiencies 
Much  has  been  made  by  Lombroso  and  otheis 
of  the  idea  that  genius  is  allied  with,  if  not  a 
form  oi,  insanity  It  is  true  that  many  men 
of  genius  have  shown  signs  of  insanity  It 
would  seem  likely  that  the  marked  ascendency 
of  COT  tain  powers  in  genius  would  involve  a  lack 
of  balance  which  might  amount  01  lead  to  in- 
sanity Especially  in  the  artistic  type  do  we 
find  such  abnormalities  Nevoitheless,  even 
the  artistic  genius  must  show  an  excellence  of 
judgment  in  reference  to  his  art  winch  suggests 
a  *'  method  in  his  madnes.s  "  In  general,  the 
genius  owes  his  success  in  the  field  of  his  pre- 
eminence to  the  sanity  which  he  displays  therein, 
although  his  emotional  intensity,  his  nervous 
sensitivity,  his  vigor  of  imagination,  or  his 
power  of  concentration  may  load  him  into  ec- 
centricities or  undermine  his  judgment 

The  interpretation  of  the  genius  as  a  degen- 
erate is  closely  associated  with  the  view  that,  he 
is  insane  The  loosening  of  inhibitions,  the 
emotionalism,  and  the  general  neuropathic 
condition  found  in  degenerates  may  lead,  es- 
pecially in  art  and  religion,  to  results  that  seem 
to  have  a  touch  of  genius  At  least,  they  at- 
tract attention,  and  often  help  the  one  who 
employs  them  to  get  a  following  On  the  other 
hand,  it  is  quite  certain  that,  in  general,  the 
genius  displays  variations  that  aie  in  advance 
of  his  type  He  is  the  superman  rather  than 
the  degenerate  Like  the  insane  or  the  eccen- 
tric, ho  defies  rule  and  precedent,  vet  m  the 
interest  of  greater  rather  than  loss  efficiency 
His  originality  is  not  more  variation,  but  moots 
the  requirements  of  judgment 

The  studios  of  Gallon  and  Wood  show  clearly 
that  genius  is  inherited  Since,  however,  it  is 
rare  that  both  parents  possess  extraordinary 
power,  the  children  of  geniuses  show,  as  a  rule, 
a  marked  tendency  to  regress  toward  medioc- 
rity The  absence  of  any  form  of  selection 
Mi  at  favors  the  survival  of  the  very  talented  as 

VOL.  Ill —  C 


against  the  common  inn  of  men  makes  it  un- 
likely that  this  tendency  fowaid  regression  *hnl) 
be  mteiforod  with  The  genius  can,  ther«,forc, 
hardly  he  taken  as  a  prophecy  of  tin*  typo 
toward  which  the  race  is  tending 

On  the  question  of  the  dependence  of  the 
genius  on  his  environment  we  have  the  com- 
mon notion  that  opportunity  is  essential  to 
greatness,  opposed  to  the  view,  championed  by 
Tarlyle,  that  genius  always  creates  u,s  oppor- 
tunities While  it  is  doubtless  true  that  e\- 
tiaordmary  gifts  do  not  insure  their  possessor 
his  proper  rating,  still  the  abilities  of  men  of 
genius  are  usually  sufficiently  broad  in  scope*  to 
enable  them  to  attain  distinction  along  some  of 
the  linos  of  opportunity  open  to  them  There 
are  probably  very  few  "  unappreciated  " 
Amuses,  and  most  of  those  who  rate  them- 
selves as  such  are,  doubtless,  because  of  their 
lack  of  some  qualities  essential  to  efficiency, 
properly  characterized  as  "cianks  " 

Genius  is  frequently,  if  not  usually,  foreshad- 
owed by  precocity  This  is  especially  true  of 
aitistic  genius  Many  of  the  greatest  musi- 
cians have,  like  Mozart,  boon  "  infant  prodigies  " 
Literary  power  is  the  latest,  among  the  artistic 
gilts  to  display  itself,  but  oven  hero  talent  may 
}>o  shown  in  childhood,  as  witness  Goethe,  Vic- 
tor Hugo,  Shelley,  and  Keats  Sometimes 
scientific  and  philosophic  01  administrative 
power  is  evinced  in  early  youth  Newton, 
Berkeley,  Horbart,  William  the  Conqueror, 
and  Alexander  the  Great  are  illustrations 

It  has  boon  thought  that  genius  does  its  best 
work  in  the  earlier  years  of  life  The  celebrated 
statement  of  Dr  Osier  was  to  the  efleet  that, 
although  many  groat  achievements  wore  ac- 
complished after  the  ago  of  forty,  still,  the  world 
would  be  where1  it  is,  if  all  great  men  had  died 
at  that  age  I)r  Dorland's  careful  study  of 
the  history  of  eminent  men  shows,  however, 
that  the  greater  part  of  then  extiaoidmary 
work  was  done  after  this  age,  and  indeed,  not 
a  little  after  the  ago  of  sixty 

So  far  as  education  is  concorru  d,  the  problem 
of  training  the  genius  doe*  not  differ  from  that 
of  training  anv  of  niou1  than  aveiago  ability 
The  tendency  toward  unifoinutv  in  0111  schools 
may  prove  unfortunate  for  the  unusual  mind 
in  two  ways  It  may  keep  him  wasting  time 
with  the  crowd,  when  his  abilities  would,  if 
properly  developed,  put  him  far  ahead  It  may 
lay  so  much  stress  on  studies  in  which  he  is  not 
capable  as  sonously  to  retard  the  development 
of  his  special  power  The  school  refoimers  are 
actively  endeavoring  to  break  up  this  mechan- 
ical uniformity  of  studios  and  of  progress 
through  the  grades  Many  devices  are  being 
developed  for  getting  at  the  individual,  for 
helping  him  to  find  his  special  bent,  and  for 
putting  him  in  a  position  to  progress  as  fast 
as  his  talents  arid  energy  will  permit  All  these 
will  assist  in  the  education  of  the  genius,  and 
although  ho  may  be  less  dependent  upon  en- 
vironment than  are  those  of  inferior  ability, 


17 


GENLIS 


GENTRY  AND  NOBLES 


nevertheless,  he  luccds  and  pi  outs  by  the  proper 
education  It  remains  one  ot  the  leading 
problems  of  the  school  to  discover  and  properly 
train  the  exceptional  man  E  N  H 

References  :  — 

CONSTABLE,    F     C      J^overty    and    Hereditary    Gemux  , 

a  Criticism  of  Mr  Francis  Gallon's  Thfory  of  Hered- 

ity     (London,  1()05  ) 

GALTON,  KR      Hcieditaru  (JCHIUX      (London,  1892  ) 
Knglmh  Men  of  XiietHe,     th(  n   Nature  and  Nurture 

(London,  1S74  ) 
HiRHfH,    \V       (Irniuft   and    l>t  generation       (Now    York, 

1896) 
LOMBHOHO,  f1      Man  of  Geniutt      (London,  1891  ) 

GENUS,  STEPHANIE  FELICITE  DU 
CREST  DE  SAINT-AUBIN,  COMTESSE  DE 
—  commonly  known  as  MME  DE  GENLIS 

(1746-1830)  —One  of  the  leading  French 
women  educators  of  her  day  According  to 
Sainte-Beuve,  "  She  was  a  woman  teacher,  she 
was  born  with  the  sign  on  her  forehead  "  She 
was  governess  in  the  family  of  the  Duchesse  de 
Chartres  Although  an  indefatigable  critic 
of  Rousseau,  she  vet  constantly  gives  evidence 
of  his  influence  She  was  the  author  of  Theatre 
(replication  (1779);  Adtte  <>t  Thfodore  (1782), 
also  known  as  Lettres  sur  V  education;  Les 
Vet  Ufa*  du  chfttcau  (1784)  A  prolific  writei, 
she  was  the  author  of  nearly  one  hundred 
volumes  In  addition  to  those  noted  above, 
her  works  on  education  include*  Di  scours  sur 
la  suppression  de*  convent?  dc  leligieusev  ct  sur 
I'  Education,  publique  dev  fcmmes  (1790);  Dis- 
co urs  sur  Induration  de  M  le  Dauphin  (1790); 
Lemons  d'une  gouvernantc  a  ses  Sieves,  ou 
fragments  </'  un  journal  qui  a  it&  fait  pour 
['education  des  en  f  ants  de  M  d'OrUans  (1791); 
I)  i  scours  sin  I'  education  publique  dn  peuple 
(1791);  Nonvelle  ntethode  d'enscignewent  pour 
la  premiere  enfancc  (1800);  Projet  d'une  ecole 
rural?  pour  I'  education  des  filler  (1802);  Les 
Dnnanches,  ou  Journal  de  la  jeunesse  (1815), 
published  for  only  one  year  F  E  F. 

References  :  — 

BONHOMME      Madame  de  Gcnlu      (Paris,  1885  ) 
CAULTTE      Madame    la    Cu?nte8i>e    dc     Gcnh*      (Pans, 


SAINTE-BEUVE,    C     A      Monday   Chats,    pp     205-226 
(Chicago,  1891  ) 

GENOA,  UNIVERSITY  OF  —  See   ITALY, 
EDUCATION  IN 

GENTRY   AND    NOBLES,    EDUCATION 

OF  —  The  close  connection  between  education 
and  politics  has  been  recognized  from  the  time 
of  classical  antiquity  Plato  in  his  Republic 
and  Aristotle  in  his  Politics  laid  down  the  prin- 
ciple of  the  vital  importance  to  the  state  of  the 
education  of  children  Throughout  the  Middle 
Ages,  the  education  of  the  actual  kings,  princes, 
and  other  governors  of  the  state  was  recognized 
as  an  essential  preparation  to  the  child,  who 
was  a  prospective  ruler  Treatises  commonly 
described  the  duties  of  princes,  and  logically  this 


18 


led  to  dealing  with  the  question  of  piepaiation 
for  such  duties  Thus,  Thomas  Aquinas  wrote 
the  de  Reginunc  Pnncipum  Occleve  produced 
his  Regiment  of  Prince*  Italy  was  especially 
distinguished  by  its  books  on  political  philos- 
ophy, in  the  fifteenth  century  Pontano  writing 
de  Principe,  Beroaldo  the  Libellus  de  Optimo 
Statu  et  Principe,  and  Francesco  Patrizi  his  de 
Regno  ct  Regis  Institution?  In  England  John 
of  Salisbury  wrote  his  famous  Polycraticus,  and 
and  in  1531  Sir  Thomas  Elyot  (q  v.)  wrote  the 
Governour  This  last-named  work  is  particu- 
larly noteworthy  because  a  considerable  portion 
of  the  book  is  taken  up  with  the  question  of  the 
education  of  the  prospective  Governour  This 
illustrates  the  connection  which  was  felt  by  the 
older  writers  between  education  and  political 
philosophy  If  the  prince  or  the  governor,  or 
by  whatever  name  the  ruler  was  called,  had  to 
rise  to  the  responsibility  of  governing  a  country, 
then  it  is  clear  that  the  welfare  of  the  nation  is 
dependent  largely  upon  the  excellent  training 
culture,  or,  in  a  word,  the  education  of  the  prince 
or  ruler  So  that  in  the  days  of  an  absolute 
Tudor  monarch,  Erasmus  wrote,  as  a  matter  of 
vital  concern,  an  educational  tieatise  on  The 
Institution  of  a  (Christian  Prince,  and  through- 
out the  sixteenth,  seventeenth,  and  eighteenth 
centuries,  numberless  educational  treatises 
concerned  themselves  with  the  education  of  the 
prince 

After  the  devastating  Wars  of  the  Roses  in 
England,  the  powei  of  the  old  nobility  was 
wrecked,  and  under  the  Tudors  a  new  nobility 
and  gentry  arose,  roughly  speaking  founded 
upon  personal  incut  and  achievement  The 
merchant  adventurers,  bailois,  arid  wamors 
came  into  the  higher  classes  concurrently  with 
the  development  of  Protestantism  As  the  new 
order  of  aristocracy  came  into  power  in  the 
state,  the  books  on  education  concerned  them- 
selves with  the  education  of  nobles  Thus 
Laurence  Humphrey  (</  v  )  wrote  his  Nobles  or 
Of  Nobility,  and  it  is  interesting  to  note  that 
he  had  written  it  first  in  Latin  (as  Opti  mates 
in  1560),  showing  that  the  Renaissance  spirit 
was  one  which  could  assume  that  a  politico- 
educational  work  to  be  read  by  nobles  must  be 
written  in  Latin  The  fact  that  he  also  wrote 
it  m  English  shows  the  advancing  place  of  the 
vernacular  also  with  the  upper  and  governing 
classes  But  the  implication  was  that,  as 
formerly,  the  education  of  the  prince  was  the 
most  important  political  aspect  of  education, 
and  the  desirability  of  the  education  of  the 
nobles  as  well  as  princes  was  recognized  as 
a  national  asset.  In  1555  was  published  the 
anonymous  Institution  of  a  Gentleman  (q.v  ), 
and  the  significance  is  that  the  "  gentleman  " 
was  becoming  a  more  noticeable  element  politi- 
cally, and,  therefore,  nationally  claimed  a 
higher  education  On  this  theory,  the  broader 
the  basis  of  the  governing  power,  the  wider  will 
be  the  demand  for  education,  to  meet  the  re- 
quired responsibility,  until  m  an  age  of  demo- 


GENTRY  AND  NOBLES 


GENTRY  AND  NOBLES 


cratic  government  the  demand  will  extend  to 
universal  education  since,  the  power  being  in 
the  hands  of  the  people,  there,  too,  must  be 
placed  the  education  and  preparatory  instruc- 
tion to  meet  the  responsibility.  Another  ele- 
ment in  the  education  must  be  noted  —  that 
the  "  gentleman  "  stood  in  opposition  to  the 
"  poor  student  "  Accordingly,  sometimes  "  the 
gentleman  "  stood  outside  the  university  and 
public  school  system,  was  educated  at  home  by 
a  private  tutor,  and  afterwards,  even  if  he  went 
for  a  time  to  one  of  the  universities,  went  also 
to  one  of  the  Inns  of  Court,  and  of  course  trav- 
eled on  the  grand  tour  of  Europe  The  edu- 
cation of  the  gentleman,  therefore,  became  dis- 
tinguished by  its  greater  breadth  At  the 
period  of  the  Renaissance,  too,  the  tradition  of 
Italian  models  set  in,  as  the  revival  of  learning 
for  Europe  had  its  origin  in  Italy  Tins  was 
at  the  very  time  that  the  courts  of  Italy  had 
developed  a  standard  of  courtliness  and  chivalry 
far  in  advance  of  what  was  found  elsewhere 
The  consequence  was  that  England  looked  to 
Italy  for  the  type  of  nobility  and  gentlemanh- 
ness  founded  on  what  obtained  at  Urbmo,  at 
Mantua,  and  elsewhere  The  effect  of  these 
courtly  ideals  in  education  mav  be  seen  in  the 
educational  thought  of  Vittoimo  da  Feltre 
(q.v)  and  Guarmo  da  Verona  (q  v )  These 
ideals  found  literary  expression  in  Baldassare 
Castiglione's  Corteguino,  1528  (q  v  )  Roger 
Ascham  (q  v  )  in  the  Scholemaster  (1570)  savs 
of  this  book,  "  To  join  learning  with  comely 
exercises  Conte  Baldesar  Castiglione  m  his 
book  Cortegiano  doth  trewelv  teach,  which 
book  advisedly  read  and  diligently  followed 
but  one  yeai  at  home  in  England  would  do  a 
young  gentleman  more  good,  I  wisse,  than 
three  years'  travel  abroad  in  Italy  "  Cas- 
tiglione's Cortegiano  was  the  climax  of  books 
on  manners,  which  were  of  long  standing  (see 
MANNERS  AND  MOU\LS)  The  Cortegiano  was 
translated  into  English  in  1561  by  Sn  Thomas 
Hoby  Sir  John  Cheke  wrote  a  letter  to  Hoby 
on  the  use  of  English  in  connection  with  his 
translation  (See  C \STIOLIONE,  BALDASSARE  ) 
After  the  G  over  now  of  Sir  Thomas  Elyot 
in  1531  the  next  books  to  notice  are  the  Insti- 
tution of  a  Gentleman  (1555)  and  Laurence  Hum- 
phrey's Nobles,  1560  (qv)  In  1561  Sir  Nich- 
olas Bacon  drew  up  Articles  for  the  Education 
of  the  Queen's  Wards,  and  about  1572  Sir  Hum- 
phrey Gilbert  planned  his  Academy  for  the 
Queen's  Wards  and  other  youth  of  nobility  arid 
gentlemen  (See  Queen  Elizabeth's  Academy, 
Early  English  Text  Society,  1869)  In  1570 
"  T.  B"  (?  Thomas  Blundeville,  qv)  trans- 
lated into  English  John  Sturm's  Nolnhtas  lit- 
er ata  or  A  Rich  Storehouse  or  Treasury  for  No- 
bility and  Gentlemen,  and  m  the  same  year 
Blundeville  translated  from  the  Italian  of 
Alfonso  d'Ulloa  the  Prince  of  Fedengo  Funo, 
a  Spaniard.  It  will  be  remembered  that  Roger 
Ascham's  Scholemaster  (1570)  and  John  Lyly's 
Euphues  (1577)  are  largely  concerned  with  the 


education  of  gentlemen  Less  known  is  an 
anonymous  tractate  in  1577  entitled  Ci/uile  and 
Uncyuile  Life'  a  Discouise  very  profitable, 
pleasant,  and  fit  to  be  i cad  of  all  Nobihtie  and 
Gentlemen  Where  in  forme  of  a  Dialogue  is 
disputed  what  older  oflyfe  best  beseem  eth  a  Gentle- 
man in  all  ages  and  times,  as  well  for  education, 
as  the  course  of  Ins  whole  life  to  mahe  him  a  person 
fit  for  the  publique  service  of  hts  pnncc  and 
country,  and  foi  the  quiet  and  comlynesse  of  his 
own  private  estate  and  calhngc 

In  1595  William  Jones  translated  the  treatise 
of  Giovanni  Baptista  Nenna,  under  the  title 
Nennio  Or  a  Treatis  of  Nobility,  wheiein  is 
discoursed  what  true  Nobility  is,  with  such  qual- 
ities as  are  required  in  a  perfect  Gentleman 
Nenna  maintains  that  a  man  becomes  noble  by 
the  nobility  of  his  mind,  and  that  men  and 
women  equally  become  noble  by  leaining  In 
1598  J  Keper  translated  Count  Ilanmball 
Romei's  Courtici's  Academy,  the  reprosentatn e 
book  of  the  court  of  Fenaia  The  latei  most 
representative  English  books  are  Henrv  Peach- 
am's  (qv)  Com  pleat  Gentleman  (1622)  and 
Richard  Brathwaite's  English  Gentleman  (1030) 
and  English  Gentlewoman  (1(531),  the  foimei 
dealing  with  topics  from  the  point  of  \icvv  of 
the  Cavaliers,  whilst  the  latter  are  permeated 
with  puritanic  manners  and  inoials  These 
ideals  were  to  some  extent  combined  in  the 
Gentleman's  (Calling,  1659,  perhaps  the  most 
popular  book  on  the  training  of  the  religious 
gentleman  which  appeared  in  the  seventeenth 
century  This  book  was  followed  m  1673  bv 
the  Ladies1  Calling,  winch  has  considerable 
interest  in  the  histoiv  of  the  education  of 
gentlewomen  There  is  much  controversy  as 
to  the  author  of  these  books  Thev  have  olten 
been  ascribed  to  Dorothy,  Lady  Pakington, 
but  Mr  Macray  in  the  Dtctionfin/  of  Notional 
Biography  (in  his  article  on  the  life  of  that 
lady)  considers  it  is  more  probable  that  they 
were  written  by  Richard  Allestiee,  an  Oxford 
tutor 

In  1661  appeared  Clement  Elhs's  Geuiile 
Sinner,  or  England's  brave  gentleman  charac- 
terised in  a  letter  to  a  friend  both  c/.s  he  is  and  r/s  lie 
should  be,  2tl  od  ,  1661  (Oxford),  fiom  a  thor- 
oughly puritan  point  of  view  In  167S  John 
(iailhard  (qv)  wrote  his  Compleat  Gentleman, 
which  probably  gives  the  best  account  of  the 
grand  tour  as  made  by  gentlemen  of  the  time 
About  172S  Daniel  Defoe  (q  v  )  \\iote  his  Com- 
pleat  English  Gentleman,  first  published  in 
lcS90,  edited  by  Dr  Karl  Bulbnng,  which  is 
noticeable  for  its  readiness  to  omit  Latin  from 
the  studies  of  the  gentleman  "  You  may," 
sa\s  Defoe,  "  be  a  gentleman  of  learning,  and 
yet  reading  in  English  mav  do  for  you  all  that 
you  want  "  After  the  end  of  the  seventeenth 
century  with  the  beginning  of  the  establish- 
ment of  chanty  schools  (q  v  )  and  the  develop- 
ment of  technical  and  trade  schools  the  exten- 
sion of  the  term  "gentleman"  had  widened  out 
greatly,  so  that  the  idea  of  a  "  liberal  "  educa- 


19 


GENTRY  AND  NOBLES 


GENTRY  AND  NOBLES 


tion  and  a  gentleman's  education  became  much 
more  approximated. 

The  distinction  between  the  education  of  the 
scholar  and  the  gentleman  in  earlier  times  is 
perhaps  best  indicated  by  saying  that  after  the 
Renaissance  the  progress  of  the  academic 
centers  was  mainly  in  the  direction  of  the  de- 
velopment of  the  subjects  of  the  medieval 
tnvium,  viz  grammar,  rhetoric,  and  logic, 
whereas  the  great  intellectual  advances  of 
the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries  intro- 
duced what  are  called  "  modern  subjects/'  e  g 
mathematics,  natural  sciences,  vernacular  lan- 
guages, foreign  and  English  These  subjects 
were  almost  entirely  ignored  by  the  univer- 
sities and  grammar  schools.  Such  "  outside  " 
subjects,  together  with  physical  exercises,  such 
as  riding  the  great  horse,  fencing,  gymnastics, 
were  precisely  the  subjects  studied  by  the  nobil- 
ity and  gentry,  as  is  shown  in  the  proposed  cur- 
ricula of  the  projected  Academies  (see  GILBERT, 
SIR  HUMPHREY,  KINASTON,  SIR  FRANCIS,  GER- 
BIER,  8m  BALTHASAR,  ACADEMIES,  COURTLY) 
We  are  therefore  driven  to  the  conclusion  that 
it  is  to  the  records  of  the  education  of  the  gentle- 
man and  the  nobleman  that  we  must  refer  to 
trace  the  progress  of  the  growing  width  of  the 
curriculum  rather  than  to  the  history  of  the 
universities  and  the  grammar  schools 

It  is  important  to  notice  that  the  develop- 
ment of  professional  education  —  e  g  the  law- 
yer, the  physician,  and  the  clergyman — was 
often  along  the  lines  of  the  modern  subjects 
and  thus  by  attraction  came  into  the  educa- 
tional circle  of  noblemen's  studies  much  more 
readily  than  into  that  of  the  university  man 
as  such,  —  the  physician's  studies,  for  instance, 
directly  affecting  the  development  of  botany 
and  zoology,  winch  often  were  included  in  the 
nobleman's  curricula  When  England  became 
richer  after  the  increase  of  trade,  consequent 
on  the  expansion  of  Queen  Elizabeth's  reign, 
the  ranks  of  country  gentlemen  increased,  and 
open-air  pursuits  and  knowledge  similarly 
developed,  nobility  and  gentry  joining  in  com- 
mon studies,  so  that  cultured  gentlemen  of  the 
type  of  John  Evelyn  (q  v  )  arid  the  members 
of  the  Royal  Society  welded  together  still 
further  professional  and  gentlemanly  studies, 
until  at  last  the  universities  found  the  pressure 
of  inclusion  of  modern  subjects  too  great  to 
resist,  if  they  were  not  to  lose  the  students 
preparing  for  professional  life 

The  importance  of  the  training  of  the  gentle- 
man m  history  and  geography  must  not  be 
overlooked  It  is  not  only  that  all  the  writers 
on  gentlemen's  education  prescribe  these  subjects 
as  gentlemen's  studies,  but  the  writers  and  de- 
velopers of  the  subjects  were  for  the  most  part 
of  the  gentleman  class  Both  in  history  and 
in  geography,  also,  it  is  to  be  noted  that  the 
beautiful  folios,  m  which  these  subjects  were 
printed,  especially  when  illustrated  with  en- 
graved pictures  and  maps,  were  expensive  pro- 
ductions and  could  only  circulate  amongst  men 


of  means,  and  of  these  the  nobles  and  the 
gentry  were  the  chief  book  buyers,  scholars 
contenting  themselves  mainly  with  Aldine 
octavos  or  Elzevir  duodecimos,  with  only  occa- 
sional folios,  and  these  chiefly  of  theology  or  clas- 
sical writers  Suggestions  on  the  youth's  studies 
by  writers  like  Francis  Osborn  in  his  Advice 
to  a  Son,  1656,  J  B  (Gent )  in  Heroic  Educa- 
tion (qv),  and  William  Higford  in  his  Institu- 
tions, 1658,  illustrate  the  permeation  of  the 
gentry  class  by  that  time  with  a  belief  in  the 
necessity  of  knowledge  in  history  and  geography 

Two  other  names  deserve  mention  in  the 
development  of  the  education  of  the  gentleman, 
—  one  m  England  and  the  other  in  the  United 
States-  Lord  Chesterfield  (qv),  (1694-1773) 
arid  George  Washington  (1732-1799)  In  his 
famous  Letters  to  his  Son,  Lord  Chesterfield 
lays  down  the  laws  of  worldly  success  for  the 
young  nobleman  or  gentleman  The  youth's 
education  was  to  be  summed  up  briefly  as 
good  breeding 

Every  detail  of  study,  of  conduct,  of  life,  was 
calculated  in  the  interests  of  worldly  success 
Samuel  Johnson  bummanzed  the  Letters  m  the 
criticism,  "  Take  out  the  immorality  and  the 
book  should  be  put  into  the  hands  of  every 
young  gentleman,  for  it  would  teach  elegance 
of  manners  and  easiness  of  behaviour."  (See 
CHESTERFIELD,  LORD  ) 

The  Rules  of  Civility  is  only  a  commonplace 
book  exercise  of  George  Washington,  written 
when  he  was  fourteen  or  fifteen  years  of  age 
These  Rules  have  been  reprinted  and  edited 
by  the  late  Mr  Moncure  D  Conway,  who 
suggests  that  the  reading  and  writing  of  them 
probably  had  effects  upon  the  development  and 
character  of  Washington  He  shows  that  the 
Rules  copied  by  Washington  were  the  work  of 
a  Jesuit,  from  the  College  of  La  Fie" c he,  which 
was  published  in  1595,  called  Bie usance  de  la 
Conversation  entre  Ics  Homines  This  was 
translated  into  Latin  m  1617  by  Leonaid 
Pe*rm,  and  was  published  in  English  as  Youth's 
Behaviour  or  Decency  in  Conversation  amongst 
Men,  by  Francis  Hawkins,  in  1646,  said  to 
have  been  translated  by  him  at  the  age  of 
eight  years  (See  MANNERS  AND  MORALS, 
EDUCATION  IN  )  From  this  book,  Dr  Conway 
urges  that  Washington  was  taught  that  "  all 
good  conduct  was  gentlemanly,  all  bad  conduct 
ill-bred  " 

The  eighteenth-century  training  in  gentle- 
manly conduct  is  probably  represented  some- 
what leniently  by  the  relatively  high  (!)  stand- 
ard of  Lord  Chesterfield  The  reaction  in  the 
earlier  part  of  the  nineteenth  century  is  shown 
by  the  remtroduction  of  the  highest  standards 
of  gentlemanly  training  in  the  English  public 
schools  The  greatest  figure  of  this  period  was 
Dr.  Thomas  Arnold  (qv)  of  Rugby.  His 
standpoint  is  represented  by  his  dictum  lt  It 
is  not  necessary  that  Rugby  should  have  three 
hundred  pupils,  but  it  is  .necessary  that  it 
should  have  scholars  who  are  Christian  gentlo- 


20 


GEOFFREY  THE  GRAMMARIAN 


GEOGRAPHY 


men  "  The  English  public  schools  since  his 
tune  have  largely  developed  physical  training 
through  games,  but  whether  concerned  with 
intellectual  aims  or  with  that  of  the  other 
features  of  school  life,  there  can  be  no  question 
that  these  schools  have  been,  and  are,  per- 
meated with  the  ideals  of  producing  gentle- 
men, in  the  sense  of  requiring  the  code  of 
honor  of  "  playing  the  game,"  in  every  activity 
of  life  In  certain  respects  they  have  entered 
on  the  physical  side  into  something  of  the  old 
chivalnc  ideals,  and  occupy  the  place  in  Eng- 
lish life  to-day  which  the  old  Academies  of  Sir 
Humphrey  Gilbert  and  Sir  Francis  Kinaston 
proposed  to  do,  but  failed  to  effect,  for  the 
training  of  gentlemen,  in  the  sixteenth  and 
seventeenth  centuries  F.  W 

See  ACADEMIES,  COURTLY,  CHIVALRIC  EDU- 
CATION; MANNERS  AND  MORALS,  EDUCATION 
IN,  GEOGRAPHY,  HISTORY  OF  THE  TEACHING 
OF,  and  the  articles  on  the  various  writers 
mentioned. 

References :  — - 

OONWAY,  M    D      George  Washington's  Rules  of  Civility. 

(London,  1890  ) 
GORDON,     G       8      Peacham's     Compleat     Gentleman. 

(Oxford,  1906) 
HILL,     G      B      Lord    Chesterfield's    Worldly    Wisdom 

(Oxford,  1891  ) 

OpDYrKK,  L  E      The  Courtier      (Now  York,  1903  ) 
RALEIGH,  W      Sir  T  Moby's  Translation  of  the  Courtier 

(London,  1900) 
WATSON,    FOHTFR      The   English   Grammar   Schools   to 

1000      (Cambridge,  1908) 
Beginnings    of    the     Teaching    of    Modern    Subjects. 

(London,  1909  ) 
WOODWARD,  W    H      Education  during  the  Renaissance. 

(Cambridge,  1906  ) 

GEOFFREY  THE  GRAMMARIAN  (fl  1440). 
—  An  important  figure  in  the  age  immediately 
before  the  introduction  of  printing,  not  because 
of  the  scholar! iness  of  the  book  associated  with 
his  name,  but  because  the  production  of  that 
book  showed  that  the  tide  was  turning,  that 
the  desire  for  learning  was  once  again  awaken- 
ing in  England,  and  that  a  now  educational 
method  was  necessary  About  the  year  1440 
a  friar-preacher  anchorite  of  Lynn  in  Norfolk, 
called  Geoffrey,  issued  for  manuscript  circula- 
tion a  volume  entitled  Promptuanuin  Parvu- 
lorurn  Clericorum  It  was  not  the  work  of  a 
scholar  in  the  real  meaning  of  that  term  It 
was  written  by  one  whom  the  Anglo-Saxon 
Canons  would  have  termed  a  "  half-learned  " 
person  for  the  use  of  the  still  less  learned 
The  book  was  a  kind  of  English-Latin  dic- 
tionary in  which  the  English  word  is  inter- 
preted by  one  or  more  Latin  words  whose 
gender  or  declension,  etc  ,  is  noted,  while  parallel 
English  meanings  are  given  It  is  indeed 
curious  that  a  book  which  did  not  pretend  to 
scholarship  should,  even  when  the  new  learn- 
ing and  the  new  grammars  had  appeared  and 
in  the  teeth  of  the  condemnation  of  Erasmus, 
have  more  than  held  its  own  The  Promp- 
tuanum  was  first  printed  in  1499  by  Pynson. 


Julian  Notary  published  an  edition  in  1508, 
and  Wynkyn  de  Worde  issued  no  less  than 
seven  editions  between  1510  and  1528  The 
book  was  English-Latin,  and  for  that  reason 
was  of  real  help  to  beginners  The  use  of 
English  in  a  grammar  or  wordbook  was  felt 
to  supply  a  fundamental  need,  and  was  rapidly 
adopted  by  the  new  grammarians  Thus  John 
Stanbridge,  John  Holt,  William  Lily,  and 
Robert  Whyttington  led  the  new  movement 
and  adopted  the  new  educational  idea  evolved 
by  the  educational  necessities  of  the  "  half- 
learned  "  monk  Geoffrey  In  the  old  gram- 
mars or  "  donats  "  the  use  of  English  was  for- 
bidden in  school  time  It  may  be  said  that 
Geoffrey's  work  inspired  all  the  school  books 
of  the  transition  period  and  created  a  new 
didactic  method  J  E.  G  DE  M. 

References :  — 

Dictionary  of  National  Biography 

WAY,  A.     Promptuarium      In  Camdon  Society's  Publi- 
cations, Vols  XXV,  LIV,  and  LXXXIX 

GEOGRAPHY  —  History  of  the  Teaching 
of  — The  practical  and  theoretical  knowledge 
of  geography  extant  at  any  given  time  consti- 
tutes a  clear  limit  to  the  possibilities  of  its 
being  taught,  but  the  extreme  importance  of 
the  practical  side  has  insured  throughout  the 
course  of  history  a  greater  approximation  of 
teaching  to  the  actual  knowledge  of  the  age, 
than  in  many  subjects  Military  arid  naval 
commanders  found  it  necessary,  and  administra- 
tors required  to  know  it  both  for  home  and 
foreign  affairs  The  extension  of  Greek  in- 
fluence through  the  establishment  of  colonies, 
and  by  enterprising  navigation,  made  at  least 
the  Mediterranean  Soa  well  known 

The  first  to  systematize  geography  as  a  sub- 
ject was  Hccatams  of  Miletus  (fl  520  B  c  ), 
who  thus  became  the  Father  of  Geography  as 
Herodotus  was  the  Father  of  History  Herod- 
otus, however,  by  his  travels  was  enabled  to 
introduce  casually,  into  his  histories,  much 
geographical  information  as  to  continents, 
rivers,  mountains,  climate,  products  etc  ,  of 
the  countries  he  had  visited,  as  well  as  de- 
scriptions of  the  tribes  of  foreign  countries 
The  famous  expeditions  of  Alexander  the  Great 
opened  up  knowledge  and  experience  to  Egypt 
on  the  south,  the  Caspian  Sea  on  the  north,  arid 
Persia  on  the  east,  revealing  the  "  wealth  of 
Ormuz  and  of  Ind,"  and  furnishing  material 
for  the  imagination  throughout  the  centuries 
The  greatest  Greek  geographer  was  Polybius 
(c  210-128  B  c  ),  who  traveled  in  Libya,  Spam, 
and  Gaul  so  as  to  "  remove  the  ignorance  " 
with  regard  to  those  lands  His  opinion  as  to 
Hannibal's  route  across  the  Alps  was  based  on 
actual  travel  and  inquiries  on  the  spot  He 
asserted  that  travel  is  necessary  for  the  historian 
and  geographer,  and  he  clearly  saw  and  illus- 
trated in  his  histories  the  importance  of 
geography,  both  physical  and  descriptive,  to 


21 


GEOGRAPHY 


GEOGRAPHY 


intelligent  study  of  history  The  subjugation 
of  so  large  a  part  of  the  world  by  the  Romans 
gave  particular  impetus  to  the  extension  and 
intension  of  geographical  knowledge  Caesar's 
Commentaries  oiier  copious  illustrations  of 
the  effect  of  conquests  on  geographical  obser- 
vation and  interest  The  explorations  of 
Posidomus  the  Greek  (130-50  B  c  )  were  of 
great  importance  in  developing  the  knowledge 
of  physical  geography  But  the  great  work 
of  antiquity  is  the  Geography  of  Strabo  (c 
63  B  c  -c  23  A  D  ),  which  not  only  gives  a  com- 
plete survey  of  the  geographical  knowledge  of 
ins  times,  but  also  supplies  an  account  of  the 
preceding  writers  on  the  subject  Strabo  is 
a  truly  comprehensive  geographer,  taking  up 
mathematical,  physical,  descriptive,  and  his- 
torical aspects  He  traces  the  influence  of  the 
physical  features  of  a  country  on  the  character 
of  inhabitants  and  on  the  course  of  the  history 
of  the  country 

The  other  ancient  writers  on  geography  who 
require  mention  aie  Pomponms  Mela,  Pliny, 
Dionysius,  and  Ptolemy  The  de  Choro- 
graphia  of  Mela  was  a  popular  account  of 
geography,  and  important,  not  for  its  contribu- 
tions to  learning,  so  much  as  from  the  fact  that 
it  lemnmed  a  scholar's  textbook  of  geography  up 
till,  and  even  beyond,  the  sixteenth  century. 
Pliny's  Ih^tonu  naturals  (79  A  D  )  had  a  section 
on  geography,  'but  it  was  very  much  a  statisti- 
cal geography  abounding  in  names,  without 
anything  of  the  philosophical  outlook  of  a  Strabo 
Dionysms  Pencgetes  (reign  of  Domitian) 
wrote  a  gooRiaphieal  poem  From  the  point 
of  view  of  the  history  of  geographical  teaching 
this  poem  of  1189  Greek  hexameters  has  an 
importance  altogether  incommensurate  with 
the  commonplace  nature  of  its  geographical 
information  Claudius  Ptolemy,  who  wrote 
in  Greek  his  famous  treatise  on  geography  (c 
150  A  D  )  probably  at  Alexandria,  ranks  as  the 
greatest  mathematical  geographer  of  antiquity, 
and  the  ancient  view  of  the  solar  system  as  re- 
volving round  the  earth  is  known  as  the 
Ptolemaic  system,  in  contrast  with  the  modern 
view  called  after  Coperrvicus  It  was  as  an 
astronomer  that  Ptolemy  showed  conspicuous 
ability,  and  the  great  vogue  of  his  books  secured 
the  alliance  of  astronomy  and  geography 
through  the  Middle  Ages,  and  part  of  the  Ren- 
aissance It  was  not  till  the  times  of  the 
great  discoveries  of  the  sixteenth  century  that 
geography  became  differentiated  from  astron- 
omy, the  combined  studies  being  commonly 
known  by  the  name  of  Cosmography  Ptolemy 
made  the  great  change  in  map  drawing  by 
introducing  the  system  of  projection,  recognizing 
the  spherical  nature  of  the  earth,  representing 
lines  of  latitude  by  parallel  curve*,  whereas 
previously  they  had  been  denoted  by  parallel 
lines  (See  MAPS  )  Besides  the  treatment  of 
mathematical  geography  and  of  maps,  the  rest 
oi  Ptolemy's  Geography  contains  tables  giving 
tho  latitude  and  longitude  of  the  different  places 


named  in  his  various  maps,  and  noticing  the 
boundaries  of  countries,  etc  The  rest  of  the 
work  is  mainly  astronomical 

The  most  intensive  geographer  of  antiquity 
was  Pausamas,  a  contemporary  of  Ptolemy, 
and  author  of  an  Itinerary  of  Greece,  which 
gives  a  full  account  of  Greek  cities  and  sacred 
places,  and  noteworthy  points  on  the  routes 
from  one  to  another  of  these,  together  with 
the  legends  and  memories  connected  with 
each  C  Julius  Solmus  (third  century  A  D  ) 
wrote  a  section  on  geography  in  his  Memo/a- 
biha,  which  had  nothing  geographically  original, 
and  but  little  that  is  not  contained  in  Pliny, 
whence  he  was  known  as  the  "  Ape  of  Pliny  " 
Nevertheless,  the  writers  of  the  Middle  Ages 
who  wrote  their  encyclopedias,  such  as  Isidore 
of  Seville  (q  v  )  in  his  Ongines  (seventh  century) 
and  Brunette  Latim  (twelfth  century)  in  his 
Tesoro,  borrowed  directly  in  their  geographical 
section  from  Solmus  In  the  fifth  century 
A  D  Paulus  Orosms  m  his  Histories,  a  collection 
of  annals  of  universal  history,  wrote  an  outline 
of  universal  geography  which  was  very  popular 
with  medieval  authors  and  teachers 

The  geographical  writers  of  antiquity,  Herod- 
otus, Polybms,  Strabo,  Pomponms  Mela,  Pliny, 
Dionysms,  Ptolemy,  Pausamas,  all  of  whom 
wrote  in  Greek,  were  lost  to  the  Middle  Ages 
During  the  Renaissance  period,  and  none 
the  less  because  they  wrote  rn  Greek,  they  were 
restored  to  general  knowledge,  and  with  their 
renewed  study  ancient  geography  became  a 
matter  of  serious  study  m  the  schools,  both  in 
the  Latin  translations  and  m  the  Greek  origi- 
nal, ancient  geography  thus  found  a  place  in 
schools  long  before  modern  geography 

In  the  Middle  Ages  the  development  of 
geographical  knowledge  progressed  slowly  Its 
progress  m  the  period  up  to  the  first  crusade 
of  1096  is  chiefly  connected  in  the  earlier  part 
of  the  period  with  the  religious  cosmographies 
or  geographies,  and  m  the  latter  part  with  the 
explorations,  discoveries,  and  conquests  of  the 
Scandinavians  In  the  earlier  period,  as  far 
as  Christian  countries  are  concerned,  the  cause 
of  geography  was  bound  up  with  the  pilgrim- 
travelers,  the  convent  maps,  and  the  religious 
impulses  which  suggested  the  conversion  of 
the  heathen  The  gain  to  exact  knowledge  was 
not  great;  the  chief  result  was  the  development 
of  geographical  myth.  The  introduction  of 
the  Scandinavian  element  into  European 
countries  brought  a  vigor  and  enterprise, 
which  communicated  themselves  in  every 
direction,  leading  both  to  geographical  dis- 
coveries as  far  as  America  and  the  Northern 
seas,  and  to  a  rereading  and  more  direct  knowl- 
edge of  that  which  had  already  been  noted 
The  work  of  Arabs  in  geography,  reaching  its 
height  in  the  ninth  century,  included  transla- 
tions of  the  old  Greek  geographers,  astronomi- 
cal calculations,  and  even  o.bservatory  work 
Arab  explorers  traversed  much  of  Southern 
and  Central  Asia.  Northern  Africa,  and  the 


22 


GEOGRAPHY 


GEOGRAPHY 


Mediterranean  Sea  coasts  From  these  ex- 
periences, with  the  wonder  element  thrown  in, 
arose  literature  such  as  that  of  Smbad  the 
Sailor  Chinese  geographical  enterprise  also 
was  noteworthy  The  Crusades  led  to  all  kinds 
of  commercial,  diplomatic,  missionary,  as  well 
as  pilgrim,  travel,  from  which  an  immense 
acquisition  resulted  to  geographical  knowl- 
edge and  tradition  Commerce  between  East 
and  West  Europe,  between  Mediterranean 
countries  and  northern  countries,  developed 
into  a  secular  organization  of  merchandise, 
which  produced  an  unecclesiastical  and  more 
scientific  geography  Asia  was  explored  by 
men  like  the  merchant  Marco  Polo  arid  Friar 
Odoric  in  the  thirteenth  century,  and  in  the 
fourteenth  century  the  Catalan  Atlas  (1375) 
attained  a  highly  creditable  form  of  thorough- 
ness, and  from  that  time  the  production  of 
more  exact  maps  marked  the  possibility  of  the 
transition  of  geography  into  an  exact  science 
Civilized  Europe  m  the  fourteenth  century  had 
discovered  the  use  of  compass,  astrolabe,  time- 
piece, as  well  as  maps  The  art  of  navigation 
went  forward  by  leaps  and  bounds  Oversea 
adventure  vied  with  overland  enterprise  until 
in  the  first  quarter  of  the  fifteenth  century 
Prince  Henry  of  Portugal  promoted  geographi- 
cal journeys,  and  opened  up  the  era  of  Portu- 
guese enterprise  which  culminated  in  1486- 
1499  in  the  voyage  round  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope  to  Calicut  by  Diaz  and  Da  Gama,  and 
the  discovery  by  Columbus  of  America  In 
1511  Portuguese  navigators  had  reached  by  the 
Eastern  route  the  Molucca  Islands,  and  in  1519 
Magellan  attempted  the  journey  to  them  by  the 
Western  route  Sir  Francis  Drake  circum- 
navigated the  globe  in  1577-1580,  and  Vitus 
Behrmg  discovered  the  strait  which  separates 
America  and  Asia  Thus  by  the  end  of  the 
sixteenth  century,  the  mam  features  of  the 
Earth  had  been  described,  the  continents  had 
had  their  contours  defined  in  maps;  travels 
and  discovery  had  made  known  country  after 
country,  people  after  people,  and  geography 
had  come  to  its  own,  by  practical  experience 
Much  remained,  of  course,  to  be  done  in  the  way 
of  filling  up,  particularly  in  the  seventeenth 
century,  but  by  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century 
and  in  the  sixteenth  century  geography  had 
reached  the  stage  of  self-consciousness  Ex- 
ploration had  provided  itself  with  instru- 
ments and  methods,  so  that  by  that  time 
geography  may  be  said  to  have  become  a  science 
in  the  sense  that  earth  knowledge  became  an 
established  subject  of  study  by  deliberate 
methods,  and  the  ascertained  knowledge  thence 
derived  became  available  for  dissemination, 
and  brought  the  subject  into  the  pedagogic 
survey,  at  any  rate,  for  those  who  were  at- 
tracted to  the  study  of  the  advance  of  civiliza- 
tion. In  England,  from  the  time  of  Drake 
onwards,  there  was  always  a  school  of  navi- 
gation in  training,  where  students  made  geog- 
raphy in  some  form  or  other  the  study  of  their 


lives,  and  there  was  from  the  time  of  the  col- 
lection of  travels  of  Ramusio  in  1550,  of  Hak- 
luyt,  1598-1600,  and  Purchas's  Pilgrims,  1613- 
1625,  a  solid  body  of  writers  and  readers  of 
travels 

Though  the  development  of  geographical 
knowledge  had  steadily  advanced  throughout 
the  Middle  Ages,  the  literature  of  the  subject 
is  almost  a  negligible  quantity  It  was  in- 
extricably mixed  up  with  biblical,  classical,  and 
legendary  material  Only  one  book  stands  out 
as  important,  viz  ,  Marco  Polo's  Book  (oncern- 
ing  the  Kingdoms  and  Marvels  of  the  East 

In  the  early  Renaissance  period  those  work^ 
only  could  be  regarded  as  literature  which  be 
longed  to  Roman  and  Greek  antiquity  In  school 
teaching,  throughout  the  sixteenth  and  seven- 
teenth centuries,  the  study  of  ancient  geography 
certainly  almost  entirely  absorbed  the  attention 
of  the  teachers,  as  far  as  this  subject  was  con- 
cerned For  the  most  part,  the  teachers  con- 
fined themselves  to  the  texts  of  ancient 
geographers,  —  particularly  Pomponius  Mela, 
Ptolemy,  and  Dionysius  Penegetes,  and  the 
astronomical  work  of  Proclus  Of  the  ancient 
geography  textbooks,  a  printed  copy  of  Pom- 
ponius Mela  was  sold  in  England  as  early  as 
1520  In  1585  Arthur  Goldmg  translated 
Pomponius  Mela  into  English,  and  did  the  same 
service  for  the  Polyhistor  of  Solmus  Of  Dionv- 
sius  theie  was  an  English  translation  in  1572 
by  Thomas  Twyne  A  Greek  text  of  Dionv- 
sms  was  published  at  P]ton  c  1607  In  165S 
a  most  elaborate  edition  of  Dionysius  was  fur- 
nished ad  u^um  tyronum  with  Greek  text  and 
Latin  translation  and  a  most  voluminous  com- 
mentary, by  William  Hill,  MA,  of  Morton 
College,  Oxford,  and  afterwards  schoolmaster 
at  Dublin  Philemon  Holland's  translation 
of  Pliny's  Ihstoria  naturahs  was  published  in 
1601,  the  second  edition  in  1634,  and  this  \vas 
recommended  for  school  libraries  by  Hoole  in 
1660  A  comparative  study  of  various  text- 
books and  authorities  enabled  Cluvenus  in 
1624  to  produce  a  geography  of  ancient  Italy, 
which  Hallam  describes  as  "  the  great  repertory 
of  classical  illustration  m  this  subject  "  The 
only  other  contemporary  author's  classical 
geography  that  needs  mention  is  Ferrari  us' 
Lexicon  Geographic 'urn,  Poeticum,  et  Historic  urn  t 
an  edition  of  which  was  published  in  London 
in  1657  But  there  were,  even  at  this  period, 
men  of  larger  vision  in  geographical  study 
In  1511  Erasmus  (q.v  )  advocated  the  study 
on  account  of  its  value  in  reading  history  and 
the  poets  The  school-teachers,  however,  sup- 
ported Erasmus  in  the  view  that  the  chief  im- 
portance of  geography  was  to  illustrate  and 
elucidate  classical  writers  and  to  provide  copious- 
ness of  phrase  in  the  descriptions  introduced 
into  themes  and  exercises  in  Latin  and  Greek 
writing  In  1523  Vives  (</  v )  recommended 
the  pupil  to  read  Strabo  and  Ptolemy,  though 
in  reading  the  latter  the  lately  introduced  and 
more  exact  maps  were  to  be  preferred  Vives 


GEOGRAPHY 

however,  further  wishes  the  pupil  to  add  the 
"  ancient  discoveries  "  in  the  East  and  West 
"  from   the   navigation   of   our   people  "    (the 
Spanish)  and  the  collections  of  travels  of  Peter 
Martyr  and  of  Raphael  of  Volterra,  HO  that  he 
may  be  regarded  as  the  first  advocate  of  the 
teaching  of  modern  geography      In   1531   Sir 
Thomas  Elyot  (</  v  )  m  the  Govertwur,  requires 
the  pupil  to  be  taught  geography,  to  prepare 
him   for   understanding    histories      He   is   an 
enthusiastic  believer  in  the  value  of  pictures, 
plans,  and  maps,  and  insists  that  cosmography 
is  a  necessary  study  for  "  all  noble  men  "     In 
1560  Laurence  Humphrey  (q  v  )  m  the  Nobles, 
speaks  of  geography  as  a  study  that  brings 
"  great  delight  and  profit  "     In   1622   Henry 
Peacham  (q  v  )  in  his  Cow  pleat  Gentleman  rec- 
ommends cosmography  as  a  "  science  at  once 
feeding  both  the  eye  and  mind  with  such  in- 
credible variety  and  profitable  pleasure,  that 
even  the  greatest  kings  and  philosophers  have 
bestowed  the  best  part  of  their  time  in  the  con- 
templation thereof  at  home  "     (See    GENTRY 
\ND   NOBLES,   EDUCATION  OF)     In  the  same 
year  Robert  Burton  (qv),  in  his  Anatomy ^  of 
*Melancholy,  speaks  of  the  pleasure  in  studying 
geographical  maps  and  praises  those  of  Ortelms, 
Mercator,  Hondius      His  bibliographical  list  of 
geographical  books  includes     books  of  cities  by 
Braunus  and   Hogenbergms,  descriptive  works 
by  Maginus,  Muster,    Hen-era,   Laet.   Mcrula, 
Boterus,  Leander,  Albertus,  Camden,  Leo  Afer, 
Adrieomius,  NIC    Gerbelius,  etc  ;    the  famous 
expeditions  of  Christopher  Columbus,  Amerigo 
Vespucci,    Marcus    Polus,   the    Venetian,    Lod. 
Vertomannus,  Aloysms  Cadamustus,  etc      He 
goes  on  to  enumerate  the  accurate  diaries  of 
Portugals,    Hollanders,    of    Bartison,    Oliver   a 
Nort,  etc  ;    Hakluyt's  Voyages,  Peter  Martyr's 
Decades,  Benzo,  Lenus,  Lmschoten's  Relations, 
those  Hodccpoiicon*    of    Jod     t\    Meggen,    Bro- 
card  the  Monk,  Bredenbachius,  Jo    Dubhmus, 
Sandys,   etc  ,  to  Jerusalem,  Egypt,  and  other 
remote  places  of  the  world      Then  he  names 
the    Itineraries   of   Paul  us    Hentzner,   Jodocus 
Smcerus,  Dux   Polonus,  etc;  —  with  the  read- 
ing of  Bellomus,  Observations,  P  (iilliuV  Surveys. 
He  then  refers  to  "  those  parts  of  America  set 
out,  and  curiously  cut  in  pictures  by  Fratres 
a  Bey  "     Such  a  'list  as  that  of  Burton  shows 
the  vast  development  of  geographical  literature 
by   1022,  one  hundred  and  thirty  years  after 
the  discovery  of  America      Among  other  prom- 
inent advocates   of  the  teaching  of  geography 
in  schools  weie  Comenms   (qv)  in  the   Great 
Didactic,    Milton    (q  v )    in    the    Tiactate,    and 
Locke  in    Thoughts  concerning    Education 

The  development  of  geographical  theory 
might  be  illustrated  by  a  comparison  of  the 
first  modern  geography  in  England,  viz  the 
Cosmographical  G1assc,*\55Q,  a  very  creditable 
first  production,  and  the  Geography  of  Nathaniel 
Carpenter  (qr),  fellow  of  Exeter  College, 
Oxford,  in  1625  In  the  latter  work  we  have 
a  comprehensive  volume  of  mathematical  geog- 


GEOGRAPHY 

raphy  in  the  first  part,  while  in  the  second  part 
the  connections  of  geography  arc  carefully 
traced  in  other  realms  of  inquiry,  and  the  idea 
of  "  human  "  geography  is  almost  as  clearly 
grasped  as  in  a  present-day  treatise. 

Peter    Heylyn   had    published    in    1621    his 
Microcosmus,    or    a    Little    Description    of   the 
Great  World      After  spending  over  thirty  years 
of  further  work,  he  produced  in  1652  his  Con- 
mographie,    containing    the     Chorography    and 
History  of  the  whole  World  and  all  the  principal 
Kingdom*,,    Provinces,   Seas   and  Ides   thereof. 
This  is  a  thick  folio,  with  1100  well  printed, 
matterful  pages,  a  handsome  volume  full  of 
history  and  geography  for  all  the  known  parts 
of  the  world      It  takes  up  almost  every  phase 
of   geography,   in   profuse   detail      It  appeals 
to  those  who  wish  to  read  the  Holy  Scriptures 
by  its  sacred   geography,   to  astronomers,  to 
physicians    (who   may   learn  from   geography 
the  different  tempers  of  men's  bodies  according 
to  the  climes  they  live  in),  to  statesmen,  to 
merchants,  mariners,  and    soldiers      Cosmog- 
raphy, with  Heylyn,  includes  natural  and  civil 
history,  descriptive  geography,  and  mathemat- 
ical  geography      The    frequency    of    reprints 
of  this  huge  and  costly  folio,  well  supplied  with 
maps  and  illustrations,  shows  the  vogue  of  the 
subject,  especially  when  we  bear  in  mind  the 
costliness    of   production    and    the   leisure    re- 
quired for  reading  it      It  is  a  gentleman' s  book, 
geography     was    particularly     a    gentleman's 
study,  and  the  reprints  of  Heylyn  in  1657,  1662, 
1666,    1670,    1674?,   1677,    1682,   1703,   are  an 
indication  of  the  enormous  development  of  the 
class  of  "  gentlemen  "  in  Tudor  and  Stuart  times 
Returning  to  the  advocates  of  the  teaching 
of    geography,    J     A    Comemus    in   his    Great 
Didactic,  written  about  1631,  includes  in  the 
curriculum  of  the  vernacular  school  "  the  mosl 
important  facts  m  cosmography,  such  as  the 
spherical  shape  of  the   heavens,  the  globulin 
shape  of  the*  earth  suspended  in  their  midst, 
the  tides  of  the  ocean,  the  shapes  of  seas,  the 
courses  of  rivers,  the  principal  divisions  of  the 
earth,    and    the    chief    kingdoms    of    Europe, 
but  in  particular,  the  cities,  mountains,  rivers, 
and   other    remarkable  features  of  their  own 
country"  s  ^  j    . 

Sir  William  Petty  (q  v )  in  1647  suggested 
that  in  the  equipment  of  his  Gymnasium 
mechamc'um  there  should  be  the  fairest 
globes  and  geographical  maps,  "  and  he  wished 
the  institution  to  be  an  epitome  and  abstract 
of  the  whole  world  "  In  1649  George  Snell  in 
his  Right  Teaching  of  Useful  Knowledge 
directed  that  the  pupils  in  the  English  School 
should  study  the  "  excellent  art  of  cosmography/' 
and  "  delightful  use  of  topography  "  and  in 
1650,  John  Dury  (q  v )  in  his  Reformed  School, 
suggested  that  an  outline  of  geography  ought 
to  be  taught  in  schools  In  1660,  in  the  New 
Discovery  of  the  old  Art  of  Teaching  School*, 
Charles 'Hoole  suggested  that  "  in  the  upper- 
most story  of  the  school  there  should  be  o  fa«i, 
24 


GEOGRAPHY 


GEOGRAPHY 


pleasant  gall  or  y  wherein  to  bang  maps  and  sot 
globes,  and  to  Jay  up  such  varieties  as  can  be 
gotten  in  presses  or  diawors,  that  the  scholars 
may  know  them  " 

Of  actual  geography  teaching  in  academic 
institutions  in  England  the  first  record  naturally 
enough  is  that  of  Richard  Hakluyt  (q.v  )  who 
claimed  that  he  was  "  the  first  to  show  the  new 
lately  leformed  maps,  globes,  spheres,  and  other 
instruments  of  this  art  for  demonstration  in 
the  common  schools  "  It  must  be  observed, 
however,  that  though  Hakluyt  claims  to  be 
the  first  teacher  of  modern  geography  in  Eng- 
land, yet  in  the  ordinances  of  Shrewsbury 
School,  drawn  up  in  1571  by  the  bailiffs  of  the 
town,  provision  is  made  that  "  from  the  stock 
remnant  there  should  be  provided  a  library 
and  gallerv  furnished  with  all  manner  of  books, 
mappes,  spheres,  instruments  of  astronomy,  and 
other  things  appertaynmg  to  learning,"  and 
in  1596  the  school  had  obtained  "  Mullinax 
his  territonal  globe  in  a  frame  with  a  standing 
base  covered  with  greenish  buckram  "  In 
1597  the  statutes  of  Blackburn  giammar 
school  state  explicitly  that  "  the  principles  of 
arithmetic,  geometry,  and  cosmography,  with 
some  introduction 'into  the  spheres  are  prof- 
itable "  In  Laud's  transcript  of  the  studies 
of  Westminster  School  1621-1628  in  the  IVth 
and  Vllth  Forms:  "  After  supper  (in  summer 
time)  they  were  called  to  the  Master  Chamber 
(specially  those  of  the  Vllth  Form)  and  there 
instructed  out  of  Hunter's  \i  e  Honter's] 
Coxniograpfne  and  piactised  to  describe  and 
find  out  cities  and  countries  in  the  mappes  " 
This  was  the  Cosmographie  (in  Latin)  of  John 
Honter,  which  contained  textbook,  atlas,  and 
index  Instruction  was  probably  given  at 
Winchester  College  in  geography,  for  in  the 
Bursar's  book  for  1656-1657  is  the  item 
£1  176  for  a  Mappa  Mundi  It  is  probable 
that  in  all  these  cases  the  systematic  geography 
taught  was  that  of  ancient  (Greece  and  Italy, 
as  illustrative  and  elucidatory  of  the  classical 
authors,  and  for  composition  writing  in  Latin 
prose  and  verse 

It  is  not  improbable  that  some  schoolmasters 
outside  of  the  systematic  curriculum  may  have 
been  interested  in  and  taught  geography,  as, 
for  instance,  John  Langley  (qv\  head  master 
of  St  Paul's  School,  who  is  described  as  a 
"historian  cosmographer  and  antiquary", 
William  Camdcn  (qv),  whose  topographical 
knowledge  of  England  was  unique,  head 
master  of  Westminster  School,  Thomas  P'ar- 
naby  (q.v.),  master  of  the  largest  private  school 
m  England  in  the  first  half  of  the  seventeenth 
century,  who  had  in  1595  accompanied  Sir 
Francis  Drake  on  his  last  voyage 

Outside  the  schools,  Hakluyt  has  already  been 
mentioned  at  Oxford  In  1654  John  Webster 
(Examination  of  Academies)  says  that  in  the 
universities  geography,  hydrography,  chorog- 
raphy,  and  topography  were  usually  taught, 
and  he  names  the  textbook  used  as  that  of 


25 


Nathaniel  CMipontei,  but  this  was  piobably 
the  mathematical  purl,  i  at  hoi  astronomical 
than  geographical  The  projootois  of  acade- 
mies, Sir  Huinphioy  Gilbert  (q  v  ),  in  1572. 
Sir  Francis  Kmaston  (q  v  ),  m  1635,  and  Sn 
Balthasar  Gerbicr  (q  v  ),  m  1648,  all  included 
cosmography  as  part  of  the  proposed  curric- 
ulum 

With  the  groat  advance*  of  maiitimo  dis- 
coveries and  with  the  constant  emigrations-,  to 
Now  Knglaml,  a  groat  naval  service  arose, 
and  the  preparation  of  youths  in  so  much  of 
geography  as  pertains  to  navigation  became 
necessary  Boys  wore  appi enticed  in  large 
numbers  to  soa  captains,  serving  ospociallv 
in  the  Indian  navy  In  1673  the  Mathemati- 
cal School  m  Christ's  Hospital  was  founded 
with  a  view  to  preparing  boys  diroctlv  for 
soa  service,  in  such  subjects  as  mathematics, 
navigation,  etc  According  to  the  King's 
ordinance  the  Governors  wore  to  fuimsh  the 
necessary  "  Books,  Globes,  Mappos,  and  other 
Mathematical  instruments  "  At  sixteen  vean- 
of  ago  OT  before,  if  the  master  of  Tiimty  House 
saw  fit,  the  boys  wore  to  be  bound  apprentice 
for  seven  yoais  to  the  captain  of  some  ship  in  the 
royal  or  merchant  service  In  1681  the  navi- 
gation class  book  was  issued  It  was  written 
mainly  by  Sir  Jonas  Moore,  assisted  by  the 
famous  Flamstood  and  II alley  It  was  on- 
titled  A  New  Kystcme  of  the  Mathematics 
arid  contained  sections  on  mathematical  sub- 
jects, as  well  as  cosmography,  navigation,  the 
doctrine  of  the  sphere,  astronomical  tables,  and 
geography  The  latter  is  described  as  a  "  de- 
scription of  the  most  eminent  countries  and 
coasts  of  the  world,  with  maps  of  them  and 
tables  of  their  latitude  and  longitude  "  The 
geography  thus  was  prevailingly  mathemat- 
ical, and  it  is  interesting  to  note  that  one  of  the 
Governors  ol  the  School,  and  a  member  of  the 
Committee  at  the  Visitation  of  1697  was  Sir 
Isaac  Newton  Many  public,  schools  arose 
thioughout  the  countiy  in  imitation  of  the 
Mathematical  School  of  Christ's  Hospital  and 
not  a  few  pnvate  schools,  where  navigation 
received  special  attention 

In  1674  Joseph  Moxon,  hydrographor  to  the 
King,  published  the  third  edition  of  his  Tutoi 
to  Agronomy  and  (leogiaphy,  dedicated  to 
Samuel  Popys,  "  not  as  what  you  need 
but  what  may  prove  an  ease  to  your  memory  " 
Though  the  official  hydrogiapher,  Moxon  in- 
troduces a  section  on  astrological  problems 
The  geographical  section  is  certainly  mathe- 
matical 

Geography  was  taught,  curiously  enough, 
by  foreign  language  masters  Thus  Guy  Mi6ge 
(qv)  in  1678  describes  himself  as  professor 
of  the  French  language  and  of  geography  He 
speaks  of  geography  as  a  subject  becoming  a 
young  gentleman,  and  says  he  doubts  not  the 
subject  "  will  take  root  amongst  the  nobility 
and  gentry  of  England  as  it  hath  in  other  na- 
tions; especially  since  the  war  began"  and  he 


GEOGRAPHY 


GEOGRAPHY 


offers  to  teach  geography  either  in  French  or 
m  English  In  1682  he  wrote  a  New  Cof>- 
wogiaphi/  ot  fiuivey  of  the  Whole  Woild  Simi- 
larly in  1769,  M  Jacques  do  Lavaud  was  a 
teacher  of  languages  and  of  geography  It 
seems  likely,  therefore,  that,  both  French  and 
geography  received  stimulus  in  their  teaching 
from  the  Huguenot  influence  in  England 

In  the  eighteenth  century  the  development 
of  the  chronometer  introduced  more  exacti- 
tude -  -  in  the  fixing  of  the  position  of  distant 
places.  Surveys  of  coast  lines  and  interiors 
become  more  exact,  and  measurements  of  the 
earth  more  reliable 

In  1729,  the  Fishmongers'  Company  m  Lon- 
don presented  their  grammar  school  at  Holt, 
in  Norfolk,  with  "  a  valuable  and  useful  library, 
not  only  of  the  best  editions  of  the  Classics  and 
Lexicographers,  but  also  with  some  books  of 
Antiquities,  Chronology,  and  Geography,  to- 
gether with  a  suitable  pair  of  globes  " 

In  the  century  which  intervened  between 
Locke  and  Vi cesiums  Knox  (q  v  )  geography  m 
England  received  attention  practically  as  well 
as  theoretically  Thus  was  particularly  the 
case  in  private  schools  rather  than  in  the  public 
schools  of  England  Thus  John  Randall,  who 
conducted  a  school  at  Heath,  near  Wakefield, 
in  1744,  and  afterwards  removed  to  a  school 
at  York  in  1765,  wrote  a  "  system  "  of  geog- 
raphy, a  comprehensive  dissertation  on  the 
creation  and  various  phenomena  of  "  the  terra- 
queous globe,"  as  it  consists  of  "  subterraneous 
waters,  mountains,  valleys,  plains,  and  rivers," 
with  an  hypothesis  concerning  their  causes. 
It  further  contains  a  description  of  all  the 
empires,  kingdoms,  etc  ,  of  the  world,  drawn 
from  ancient  and  modern  history,  and  some 
of  the  most  celebrated  voyages  arid  travels 
Statistics  are  comprehensively  given  of  the 
"  present  state  "  of  the  various  countries  and 
full  details  offered  as  to  climate,  government, 
laws,  policy,  trade,  revenues,  forces,  curiosities, 
population,  character,  religion,  customs,  cere- 
monies In  1753  another  private  schoolmaster, 
J  Burgh,  recommends  in  the  study  of  geog- 
raphy the  following  textbooks:  Randall's 
System  of  Geography;  Harris  On  the  Use  of  the 
Globe,  the  Geographical  Dictionary;  Anson's 
Voyages,  and  Salmon's  Geographical  Gram- 
mar. Of  tins  list,  Harris's  Geography  was  the 
book  of  longest  and  widest  vogue  on  the  subject 
The  second  edition  is  dated  1712  It  proceeds 
by  question  and  answer,  and  it  is  the  first 
school  textbook  (apparently)  of  purely  de- 
scriptive geography,  and  distinctly  an  interest- 
ing and  helpful  book  for  the  learner  In  1746 
was  published  the  third  edition  of  an  Intro- 
duction to  Geography  on  the  same  lines  as  that 
of  Harris,  written  by  J  Cowley,  "  geographer 
to  his  Majesty,"  a  work  which  is  apparently 
the  first  general  modern  geography  explicitly 
stated  to  be  "  designed  for  the  use  of  schools." 
These  textbooks  of  Harris,  Cowley,  and  Ran- 
dall are  more  modern  in  scope  and  outlook 


than  the  later  Guides  to  the  Vxc  of  the  Globes, 
the  series  beginning  with  that  of  Daniel  Fen- 
mng  in  1760,  and  continuing  to  the  more  matter- 
ful  and  interesting  Exerci8cs  on  the  Globe  of 
William  Butler  in  1814,  designed  "  for  the  use 
of  young  ladies  "  At  the  beginning  of  the 
nineteenth  century,  the  use  of  the  globe  was 
an  acknowledged  part  of  the  curriculum  of  all 
the  private  schools  and  academies  for  young 
gentlemen  and  young  ladies,  although  the 
teaching  was  mainly  informational,  and  had 
little  mental  discipline  in  it 

Two  points  especially  should  be  noted  in 
tracing  the  history  of  geography  teaching 
First,  its  development  has  taken  place  outside 
of  the  recognized  public  schools  system,  chiefly 
m  private  schools  Second,  arising  m  the 
mixed  subject  of  cosmography  it  has  become 
differentiated  as  earth  knowledge,  and  its 
original  partner,  astronomy,  in  the  portions 
which  have  especial  reference  to  our  earth, 
curiously  enough,  and  not  altogether  advan- 
tageously, has  been  ousted  from  the  study, 
even  in  outline,  of  the  great  masses  of  (at  any 
rate)  British  children  In  the  teaching  of 
geography  itself,  however,  within  the  last  dec- 
ade modern  aims  and  methods  have  improved 
almost  more  remarkably  perhaps  than  m  any 
single  subject  in  England  F.  W. 

Academic  Status  —  Germany  —  Geography 
as  a  university  subject  has  long  had  a  prominent 
place  in  Germany  A  long  list  of  eminent  names 
attests  to  the  high  position  of  this  science  in  a 
nation  noted  for  its  scientific  achievement 
Humboldt,  Ritter,  Ratzel,  and  Richtofen  stand 
out  prominently  among  the  great  geographers 
that  the  world  has  produced,  and  m  the  Gor- 
man universities  of  to-day  are  included  some 
of  the  leading  geographers  of  the  present  time 
Geography  is  a  recognized  and  essential  part 
of  the  university  curriculum,  and  provision  is 
usually  made  for  the  presentation  of  various 
phases  of  the  subject  by  two  or  more  specialists 
in  different  parts  of  the  geographic  field 

The  prominence  attained  by  geography  in 
Germany  is  the  result  of  a  variety  of  causes, 
among  which  is  undoubtedly  the  strong  in- 
fluence of  a  few  powerlul  men,  early  m  the  field, 
working  in  a  country  where  centralized  au- 
thority has  had  a  voice  in  university  develop- 
ment Doubtless  also  it  is  partly  due  to  that 
keen,  clear-sighted  recognition  of  the  value  of 
science,  m  all  its  phases,  which  has  placed 
Germany  in  the  front  rank  in  science  and  has 
been  one  of  the  chief  underlying  causes  for  the 
wonderful  industrial  development  of  that 
country  The  scientific  spirit,  so  noticeable 
throughout  the  German  nation,  has  encouraged 
geographical  research,  thus  providing  teachers; 
and  where  there  are  inspiring  teachers  arid 
leaders  in  research,  there  are  certain  to  come 
students  to  listen  and  to  investigate.  There 
are  certainly  two  other  prominent  factors  which 
help  to  explain  the  importance  of  geography 
in  the  universities  of  that  country.  One  of  these 


26 


GEOGRAPHY 


GEOGRAPHY 


is  the  broad  intellectual  interest  of  the  normal, 
educated  German;  the  other  is  the  nature  of  the 
educational  system  Under  more  or  less  com- 
plete centralized  authority  a  curriculum  below 
the  university  has  been  developed  in  which 
systematic  study  of  scientific  geography  has 
a  definite  and  prominent  place  And  since 
the  German  teacher  must  know  the  subject 
he  professes  to  teach,  provision  is  made  in  the 
universities  to  meet  the  demand  Further, 
the  breadth  of  culture  among  educated  Ger- 
mans is  such  that  it  is  fully  recognized  by  them 
that  geography  is  a  basal  science,  an  under- 
standing of  which  is  essential  to  correct  inter- 
pretation of  much  of  human  history  and  de- 
velopment, and  that  it  is  also  basal  to  an 
appreciation  of  the  distribution  of  animals  and 
plants  and  to  the  industries  that  depend  upon 
them  and  upon  other  products  of  the  earth 
Thus  it  happens  that  many  German  students, 
whose  mam  interest  is  in  other  lines,  seek  a 
knowledge  of  scientific  geography  such  as  the 
German  university  professor  can  give 

Partly  as  a  result  of  German  influence, 
geography  has  now  a  high  place  in  other  con- 
tinental nations,  and  what  has  been  said  with 
regard  to  geography  in  Germany  applies  to  a 
greater  or  less  degree  to  Holland,  Switzerland, 
Austria-Hungary,  and  France  But  in  Europe 
it  is  almost  warranted  to  state  that  the  im- 
portance of  geography  as  a  university  subject 
diminishes  progressively  with  the  increase  in 
distance  from  Germany 

England  —  It  is  a  curious  fact  that  in  the  one 
nation  where  the  strongest  reason  for  geo- 
graphic interest  would  seem  to  be  present  — 
the  British  —  university  geography  is  almost 
at  its  lowest  ebb  Only  within  a  very  few  years 
has  any  provision  whatsoever  been  made  for 
geography  in  the  great  British  universities, 
and  then  merely  in  a  sort  of  experimental  way 
in  the  form  of  lectureships  and  readerships, 
urged  and  partly  supported  by  geographical 
societies 

No  attempt  will  be  made  to  consider  the 
question  whether  the  striking  contrast  between 
Great  Britain  and  Germany  m  this  respect  is 
in  any  way  ascribablc  to  a  difference  in  scien- 
tific spirit  or  broad  scientific  culture  There 
are  other  more  evident  and  more  easily  demon- 
strable causes  One  of  these  is  the  fact  that 
there  is  no  such  centralized  educational  system 
below  the  university;  and  in  the  schools 
geography  has  no  such  rank  as  in  Germany 
There  is,  therefore,  no  such  demand  for  teachers 
with  a  university  training  in  geography  A 
second  reason  is  that  the  British  geologist  has 
taken  into  his  own  field  some  of  the  best  of 
scientific  geography  Therefore  some  of  the 
most  important  geographic  work  published  in 
Great  Britain  is  from  the  pens  of  geologists, 
and  is  produced  as  a  kind  of  geological  by- 
product A  third  reason  for  the  position  of 
geography  in  Great  Britain,  perhaps  the  result 
of  its  world-wide  colonial  interests,  is  the  fact 


27 


that  geography  there  has  come  to  be  corsjdered 
as  almost  synonymous  with  exploration  A 
journey  to  the  Arctic  or  the  Antarctic,  a  trip 
across  Africa,  or  an  exploration  of  New  Guinea 
is  ranked  as  more  geographical  (if  we  may 
judge  by  honors  conferred)  than  an  interpreta- 
tion of  a  land  form,  or  a  scientific  study  of  the 
geographical  relationships  of  a  known  aiea 
Geographical  publications  abound  in  interest- 
ing descriptions  of  remote  regions,  little  known 
people,  itineraries  of  journeys,  and  associated 
incidents,  accidents,  arid  adventures  Suth  ex- 
ploratory work  while  doubtless  important,  as 
the  accounts  certainly  are  interesting  and  enter- 
taining, rarely  merits  the  characterization 
scientific,  and  is  not  uncommonly  even  dis- 
tinctly unscientific  There  is  certainly  little 
basis  for  a  subject  of  this  sort  to  claim  a  place 
in  the  university,  and  it  is  by  no  means  im- 
probable that  the  reputation  gained  by  geog- 
raphy as  an  essential  synonym  of  exploration 
is  one  of  the  strong  reasons  why  geography  has 
so  tardily  won  a  place  in  the  British  univer- 
sities 

Lest  this  characterization  of  geography  in 
Great  Britain  be  misunderstood,  it  may  be 
well  to  add  that  there  have  been  scientific 
geographers  of  the  very  first  rank  Such  names 
as  Lyell,  Wallace,  and  Geikie  rank  with  the 
world  leaders  in  scientific  geography ,  but  they 
are  not,  as  in  Germany,  university  teachers 
The  beginning  that  has  been  made,  notably  in 
the  Oxford  and  Cambridge  Schools  of  Geog- 
raphy, has  been  admirable  and  is  promising  for 
the  future,  while  the  newer  universities  have 
also  made  provision  for  the  higher  study  of  the 
subject  in  connection  with  economies  and  com- 
mercial courses 

United  State*  —  In  America  the  recognition 
of  geographv  in  the  university  has  been  almost 
as  tardy  as  m  England,  and  for  similar  reasons 
There  have  been  cases  where  professors  of  his- 
tory or  of  political  science,  usuallv  \\ith  a 
German  university  experience,  have  given 
brief  courses  in  historical  or  political  or  com- 
mercial geography  to  furnish  a  pait  of  the 
geographic  basis  needed  by  then  students 
There  have  been  a  few  cases  \\heie  chairs  of 
geography  were  established  a  generation  or 
more  ago,  but  these  instances  have  been 
sporadic  and  have  represented  no  well  defined 
movement  toward  university  recognition  of 
geography 

Perhaps  the  nearest  approach  to  early  recog- 
nition of  this  subject  in  the  university  curric- 
ulum in  the  German  way  was  when  Guyot 
(q  v  )  was  given  a  chair  m  Princeton  Agassiz 
(q  v  )  found  the  American  field  a  virgin  one 
for  the  introduction  of  scientific  natural  his- 
tory from  its  European  environment,  and  uith 
his  genius,  personality,  and  boundless  enthu- 
siasm he  laid  a  foundation  upon  which  the 
growth  of  natuial  history  subjects  in  the 
American  university  became  assured  Seem- 
ingly equal  opportunity  existed  m  the  field  of 


GEOGRAPHY 


GEOGRAPHY 


geography,  and  to  it  Guyot  came  at  Agassiz* 
suggestion  and  in  1854  became  professor  of 
geography  at  Princeton,  a  position  which  he 
held  until  his  death  thirty  years  later  Guyot 
did  valuable  and  important  work,  but  appar- 
ently conditions  in  America  were  not  favorable 
to  vigorous  spread  of  scientific  geography; 
there  arose  no  effective  Guyot  School  and 
geography  in  the  American  university  had 
about  the  same  position  at  the  end  of  his 
teaching  as  at  the  beginning 

In  the  meantime,  the  study  of  geology  (q.v.) 
spread  rapidly,  and  provision  is  now  made  for 
it  in  every  college,  while  the  larger  universi- 
ties have  from  three  to  five  professors  for  the 
subject  This  high  rank  of  geology  is  ap- 
parently due  in  part  to  the  recognized  scien- 
tific character  of  geologic  study,  and  in  part 
to  the  presence  of  a  demand  for  men  with 
geological  training  Geography,  on  the  other 
hand,  has  had  in  America,  as  in  Great  Britain, 
to  bear  the  reputation  of  being  non-scientific, 
or,  at  best,  little  more  than  a  descriptive 
science  At  the  same  time  some  of  the  most 
thoroughly  scientific  phases  of  geography  have 
been  annexed  by  sister  subjects,  notably  by 
geology  As  a  result  of  the  confusion  thus 
arising,  there  has  even  been  a  tendency  to 
question  whether  there  is  a  science  of  geog- 
raphy, some  holding  that  ail  that  is  really 
scientific  in  it  lies  within  the  province  of  estab- 
lished subjects,  such  as  geology,  zoology, 
botany,  ethnology,  history,  economics,  etc  It 
is  sufficient  answer  to  such  a  claim  to  point 
to  the  scientific  results  of  continental  geo- 
graphic research,  and  to  the  contrast  in  out- 
put on  such  topics  between  Germany  and  Eng- 
land or  America,  where  geography  is  not  so 
organized  as  a  science. 

As  in  Great  Britain,  so  in  America,  there 
has  recently  come  about  a  change  in  the 
status  of  geography  in  the  university;  but  the 
nature  and  underlying  causes  of  the  change 
have  been  quite  different  in  the  two  countries. 
In  Great  Britain  geography  has  gone  into  the 
university  as  a  result  of  outside  pressure;  in 
the  United  States  it  has  evolved  within  the 
university,  primarily  as  a  result  of  the  dis- 
covery that  much  that  had  previously  mas- 
queraded under  the  term  "geology"  was  really 
geography,  or  needed  only  moderate  change  to 
enrich  it  with  the  true  geographic  flavor. 
Naturally  this  geography,  of  geological  parent- 
age, is  dommantly  physical  geography  or 
physiography  That  it  should  have  made  for 
itself  a  place  in  American  universities  as  an 
offshoot  of  geological  teaching  is  natural  when 
it  is  remembered  that  some  of  the  most  sig- 
nificant basal  principles  of  the  evolution  oi 
land  forms  have  been  discovered  by  American 
geologists  as  a  by-product  of  their  geological 
work,  —  notably  by  Gilbert  and  Powell. 

To  Davis  of  Harvard,  more  than  to  any 
other  one  person,  is  to  be  credited  the  evolu- 
tion of  the  geographic  phase  out  of  the  geologic 


teaching,  and  its  segregation  into  a  more  or 
less  definite  branch  of  science  teaching  in  the 
American  university  Other  teachers  were, 
and  still  arc,  teaching  geography  as  geology, 
and  some  have  definitely  recognized  the  fact, 
—  for  instance  Shaler  of  Harvard,  who  in  a 
large  part  of  his  broad  scientific  interest  was  a 
real  geographer,  though  he  ranked  in  the  uni- 
versity as  professor  of  geology  Having  intro- 
duced the  geographic  viewpoint  into  his  teach- 
ing as  a  member  of  the  Harvard  Geological 
Department,  and  working  in  the  midst  of  the 
inspiring  influence  of  his  geographic  colleague 
Shaler,  Davis  has  developed  an  American 
school  of  physical  geography  whose  influence 
has  spread  throughout  the  whole  field  of 
American  education  A  generation  of  physiog- 
raphers has  been  reared  by  the  genius  and 
tireless  energy  of  Davis,  and,  as  m  the  case  of 
Agassiz  in  natural  history,  the  extent  of  the 
influence  of  the  master  has  been  broadened  by 
the  work  of  his  pupils  and  by  others  less 
recognizably  under  his  direct  influence 

But  this  peculiar  manner  in  which  geog- 
raphy has  found  a  place  in  the  American  uni- 
versity has  resulted  in  its  occupying  a  rather 
anomalous  and  somewhat  narrow  position  in 
the  curriculum  Ordinarily  geography  is 
merely  a  part  of  the  course  offered  by  the 
geological  department,  and  the  teacher  of  it 
may  rank  as  professor  of  geology,  as  in  fact  is 
the  case  with  Professor  Davis  himself,  who  is 
not  professor  of  geography  m  Harvard,  but 
Sturgis  Hooper  Professor  of  Geology  In 
some  of  the  better  universities  and  colleges  no 
provision  whatsoever  is  made  for  any  geog- 
raphy excepting  such  elementary  instruction  m 
physical  geography  as  a  professor  of  geology 
can  give  m  addition  to  his  purely  geological 
teaching  In  such  cases  there  is  little  basis 
or  opportunity  for  geographic  research  A 
still  larger  number  of  the  leading  universities 
have  one  or  more  men  who  give  their  entire 
attention  to  geographic  subjects  m  teaching 
and  research;  and  a  few  make  special  pro- 
vision for  other  phases  of  geography  than 
physical  geography  Yet,  with  but  few  excep- 
tions, this  geographic  work  is  offered  m  the 
geological  department,  or  m  the  department 
of  "  geology  and  geography  "  In  a  very  few 
cases  geography  stands  as  an  independent 
department  coordinate  with  geology,  from 
which  it  has  in  most  instances  been  recently 
divorced. 

The  evolution  of  geographic  instruction  in 
the  American  university,  in  the  main  on  the 
basis  of  previous  university  recognition  of 
geology,  has  been  extraordinarily  rapid  m  the 
last  ten  or  fifteen  years,  during  which  most  of 
it  has  taken  place.  Whether  similar  develop- 
ment will  continue  for  another  decade  cannot 
be  told;  but  it  is  clearly  evident  that  geog- 
raphy has  at  last  gamed  a  position  m  the 
American  university  curriculum  from  which 
there  can  be  no  recession.  Three  or  four  of 


28 


GEOGRAPHY 


GEOGRAPHY 


the  largcM-  universities  have  set  an  example  of 
broad  policy,  recognizing  geography  fully  and 
providing  for  the  touching  of  a  number  of  its 
important  phases,  as  in  Germany  Others, 
also  among  the  leading  universities,  have 
scarcely  taken  the  first  step,  but  it  is  to  be 
confidently  expected  that  these  laggards  will 
not  long  remain  so  far  behind.  The  example 
so  long  ago  set  by  Germany,  and  now  fully 
adopted  by  a  few  of  the  more  progressive 
American  universities,  may  fairly  be  considered 
the  goal  toward  which  the  best  of  our  univer- 
sities will  tend 

It  is  to  be  noted,  however,  that  scientific 
geography  in  the  American  university  is  at  a 
disadvantage  as  compared  to  its  position  in 
Germany  It  is  not  to  be  expected  that  uni- 
versity trustees  will  provide  teachers  in  sub- 
jects not  demanded  by  students,  nor  can  they 
properly  make  much  further  provision  for  the 
expansion  of  elementary  instruction  To  the 
German  university  there  come  students  with 
previous  good  training  in  geography,  much  of 
it  on  a  par  with  some  of  our  elementary  uni- 
versity geography  There  is  also  a  body  of 
earnest  students  who  in  their  desire  to  master 
special  subjects  correspond  more  nearly  with 
our  small  group  of  graduate  students  than 
with  our  overwhelming  numbers  of  under- 
graduates These  students  are  not  content 
with  mere  elementary  work,  even  though  their 
main  interest  lies  in  history  or  in  botany. 
The  point  to  be  noted  here  is  that  the  teacher 
of  geography  in  the  American  university  may 
be  obliged  to  justify  his  appointment  more  in 
elementary  courses  than  in  advanced  study,  — 
and  an  examination  of  some  of  the  courses 
offered  seems  to  indicate  that  this  is  the  real 
condition  If  so,  we  may  not  hope  for  the 
great  scientific  result  in  America  that  recog- 
nition of  geography  in  the  university  has 
brought  in  Germany 

Finally,  there  is  the  difference  in  the  utili- 
tarian influence  in  Germany  and  in  the  United 
States  There  a  demand  exists  for  men  and 
women  trained  in  geography  before  they  are 
allowed  to  teach  geography.  Here  pedagogy 
is  not  commonly  placed  ahead  of  knowledge 
The  principle  that  "  a  person  can  teach  any- 
thing if  only  he  is  a  natural  teacher  "  finds  far 
less  encouragement  in  Germany  than  in 
America  Only  in  our  larger  cities,  and  in  not 
all  of  these,  is  knowledge  ranked  with  peda- 
gogical power  Moreover,  almost  equally  with 
England,  geography  as  a  school  subject  is  neg- 
lected in  the  United  States.  A  student  in  his 
most  immature  period  has  a  few  years  of 
geography  study,  then  comes  an  intermission, 
then  perhaps  a  course  in  physical  geography  or 
commercial  geography,  or  possibly  no  geog- 
raphy at  all  The  high  school  geography  may 
be  given  to  almost  any  one,  very  likely  to  the 
least  burdened  teacher,  possibly  of  drawing,  or 
Latin,  or  English  For  those  who  plan  to  be 
teachers  there  is  little  need  of  studying  uni- 


versity geography  This  contiasts  strikingly 
with  Genminy,  \\heie  then4  is  a  well  devisou 
course  of  geography  in  the  schools,  and  where 
a  geography  teacher  is  supposed  to  know 
geography 

The  condition  in  America  undoubtedly  has 
had,  and  still  has,  a  very  important  influence 
in  retarding  the  development  of  geography 
teaching  in  our  universities  It  will  continue 
to  be  a  disadvantage  as  compared  with  the 
conditions  in  Germany,  but  there  is  another 
phase  which  is  hopeful  With  the  develop- 
ment of  geographv  in  the  university  curriculum 
there  will  doubtless  spread  an  influence  down 
through  the  grades  as  a  result  of  which  the 
teaching  of  the  subject  will  be  both  extended 
and  improved  Perhaps  one  of  the  greatest 
reasons  for  the  weakness  of  our  school  geog- 
raphy is  the  fact  that  the  subject  has  not 
hitherto  found  adequate  recognition  in  the 
American  university  R  S  T. 

University  Courses  —  In  Germany  the  offer- 
ings in  geography  vary  with  each  semester  For 
example,  there  were  in  the  winter  semester  ot 
1910-1911  seven  courses  at  Berlin,  one  at  Halle 
(on  Arabian  geographies),  one  at  Heidelberg, 
five  at  Leipzig 

In  the  English  universities  the  ad\ance  in 
the  study  of  geography  has  been  due  in  the 
main  to  the  development  of  commercial 
courses  in  the  newer  institutions  At  Oxford 
a  School  of  Geography  was  established  in  1S99 
with  the  aid  of  the  Royal  Geographical  Society, 
and  has  a  faculty  consisting  of  the  University 
Professor  in  Geography,  an  assistant,  and  lec- 
turers in  ancient  geography,  and  the  history 
of  geography,  an  instructor  in  surveying,  and 
a  demonstrator  in  geography  Diplomas  and 
certificates  are  awarded  in  the  subject  At 
Cambridge  a  Board  of  Geographical  Studies, 
working  in  conjunction  with  the  Royal  Geo- 
graphical Society,  exists  to  promote  geo- 
graphical research  and  study  and  to  ai  range 
courses  There  are  a  University  Reader  and 
lecturers  in  geography  The  subject  may  be 
offered  for  the  ordinary  B  A  degree,  the 
examination  covering  physical,  historical  and 
political,  economic  and  commercial  geographv, 
cartography,  history  of  discovery,  and  elements 
of  ethnology  Diplomas  are  also  awarded  by 
the  Board  of  (Geographical  Studies  At  the 
University  of  Manchester  courses  an*  given  in 
the  faculty  of  arts  by  the  lecturer  in  geograph> 
111  the  scope  and  meaning  of  geography,  in 
geography  of  a  special  area,  political  and 
economic  geography,  and  a  practical  course 
and  a  seminar  are  conducted,  while  physical 
geography  is  given  in  the  faculty  of  science 
together  with  geology  At  the  University  of 
Liverpool  courses  are  given  by  two  lecturers 
in  classical  geography,  general  principles,  phys- 
iography, commercial,  historical,  and  regional 
geography 

The  development  of  the  subject  in  America 
has  already  been  dealt  with  Here  «  few 


29 


GEOGRAPHY 


GEOGRAPHY 


courses  and  number  of  instructors  in  the  sub- 
ject will  be  given  from  a  few  representative 
universities. 

Harvard  —  Professor,  assistant  professor,  and  an  assistant 
For  undergraduates  Physical  Geography  —  lectures,  labora- 
tory work,  and  hold  excursions  For  graduates  arid  undei- 
graduates  Physiography  of  the  United  States,  Geographic 
Influences  in  North  America ,  Physiography  of  Europe ,  Geo- 
morphology  ,  Geography  of  South  America  ,  and  (for  graduates 
primarily)  a  research  course  in  Physiography 

Yale  —  Professor  and  two  assistant  professors  Undergrad- 
uates Physical  and  Commercial  Geography  followed  by 
environmental  influences  on  man's  activities,  Anthropography  , 
Physiography  Graduates  Physical  Geography,  Geography 
of  North  America,  South  America,  and  Asia 

University  of  California  —  Three  assistant  professors  and 
one  instructor  Lower  Division  General  physical  geography  , 
Introduction  to  Kconomie  geography  ,  the  materials  of  com- 
merce ,  Introductory  geography  ,  Physiography  of  the  lands  , 
Topography  maps  arid  models ,  Relief  modeling ,  Elementary 
meteorology,  Geography  of  Spanish  America,  Historical 
geography  (two  courses)  Upper  Division  Historical  geog- 
raphy of  Modern  Europe,  Economic  geography  of  the  United 
States,  General  climatology,  Oceanography,  California  map , 
Geography  of  North  America ,  Geographical  influences  in  the 
Western  United  States,  Climatology  of  the  Pacific  Coast, 
Glacial  geography,  Geography  of  California,  Geography  of 
Africa  Graduate  Courses  Physiography  of  the  Pacific  Coast , 
the  teaching  of  physical  geography  ,  Special  studies  in  physiog- 
raphy and  climate ,  Commercial  resources  of  the  Spanish-Ameri- 
can Countries 

Chicago  —  Professor,  two  associate  professors,  and  an 
assistant  Undergraduate  Commercial  geography,  Eco- 
nomic geography,  Climatology,  Influence  of  Geography  on 
American  history ,  Political  geography ,  Climate  and  man , 
Economic  geography  of  North  America ,  Economic  geography 
of  Europe  Senior  and  Graduate  Commercial  geography 
Economic  geography  of  tropical  countries,  Principles  or 
geographv,  the  geographic  problems  of  the  Orient,  Cartog- 
raphy arid  graphics,  tho  historical  geography  of  American 
citios ,  the  natural  resources  of  the  United  States,  their  exploita- 
tion and  conservation  ,  some  principles  of  Anthropogeography  , 
geographic  influences  in  the  history  of  New  England  ,  of  the 
Interior,  of  the  Middle  Atlantic  States,  History  of  Geog- 
raphv, Research  courses  Courses  m  physical  geography  are 
given  in  the  Department  of  Geology 

University  of  Wwconvin  —  Given  in  the  Department  of 
Geology  Undergraduate  Short  course  in  geography  ,  Physi- 
ography and  geographv,  Physical  geography  for  commerce 
students,  Economic  geographv ,  Regional  geographv 

(Inivernty  of  Pennsylvania  — Given  in  the  Department  of 
Economics  Undergraduate  Political  geography,  Economic 
climatology  ,  Geography  of  Europe 

Geography  in  the  Schools  —  United  States. 
—  Geography  has  long  held  an  important 
place  in  school  work  in  the  United  States, 
both  in  elementary  and  in  secondary  schools 
Geography  has  at  times  been  considered  by 
some  to  be  the  fundamental  subject  in  ele- 
mentary schools,  about  which  all  other  sub- 
jects must  center  (sec  CONCENTRATION;  PAR- 
KER, FRANCIS),  by  others,  geography  has  been 
and  still  is  considered  a  catch-all  subject  which 
has  little  inherent  strength  of  its  own,  but  yet 
must  be  given  some  place.  By  others,  and 
the  number  is  constantly  increasing,  geography 
is  held  to  be  one  of  the  fundamental  subjects 
of  the  curriculum,  tested  as  to  its  worth  and 
capable  of  being  developed  by  good  teaching 
into  one  of  the  most  significant  of  school  sub- 
jects. Geography  as  the  study  of  the  earth 
in  its  relation  to  man  deals  with  elements  of 
the  environment  of  deep  significance  to  all, 
and  is  of  great  value  because  of  the  aid  it  gives 
to  other  subjects  m  the  curriculum 

Geography  is  no  longer  generally  considered 
merely  an  informational  subject  which  permits 
some  attention  to  necessary,  detailed  facts  to 
be  known  by  all  Although  facts  are  vital 
necessary  in  the  subject,  geography,  as  a 


30 


study  of  relations  between  tho  physical  en- 
vironment and  life  in  a  causal  way,  is  decidedly 
a  study  of  principles  of  great  working  signifi- 
cance Geography,  rightly  taught,  imparts  to 
the  pupils  a  knowledge  of  large  relations  over 
the  world,  which  all  must  know  to  understand 
current  events,  world-movements  of  people,  or 
the  problems  of  commerce  of  to-day.  Geog- 
raphy teaching,  therefore,  has  for  its  purposes 
the  imparting  of  a  working  knowledge  of  the 
principles  of  geography  and  training  m  work- 
ing with  geographic  relationships  and  geo- 
graphic materials  that  gives  pupils  a  power  to 
use  their  knowledge  in  later  life  This  view- 
point is  fundamental  and  vital  in  both  ele- 
mentary and  secondary  school  geography,  but 
as  yet  secondary  school  geography  »s  so  special- 
ized that  these  larger  purposes  rrc  often  lost 
sight  of  in  the  endeavor  to  give  training  in 
specialized,  scientific  thinking  in  a  narrow 
phase  of  geography 

Elementary  School  Geography  —  The  char- 
acter of  school  courses  in  geography  is  now,  as 
it  always  has  been,  largelv  determined  by  the 
content  of  the  textbooks  in  use  In  the  earlier 
part  of  the  last  century,  the  school  texts  were 
topical  in  order  and  were  planned  to  cover  the 
geography  of  the  world  in  a  brief  way  Later, 
the  geography  course  was  repiesented  by  two 
books,  an  elementary  and  an  advanced,  or  a 
first  and  second  book,  and  that  plan  holds 
to-day.  The  plan  of  tho  earlier  book  was  to 
present  the  larger,  more  general  items  of 
geographic  interest,  to  be  followed  in  the 
larger  book  by  a  moro  broad  consideration  of 
the  same  topics  Those  books  dealt  largely 
with  the  facts  of  political  and  of  physical 
geography  and  gavo  little  attention  to  goo- 
graphical  relationships 

The  first  departure  from  the  earlier  plan 
was  in  tho  Guyot  Geographies  of  1866,  m 
which  emphasis  was  given  to  human  relations 
to  physical  conditions,  and  in  which  maps 
were  made  of  vital  significance  Guyot's 
books  wore,  however,  ahead  ol  their  time,  and 
the  principles  of  Guyot,  now  recognized  as  of 
great  significance,  wore  but  little  developed  by 
others.  (See  GUYOT  ) 

The  first  groat  change  from  the  plan  of 
these  earlier  books  was  in  1894,  following  the 
Report  of  the  Committee  of  Ten  (qv)  of  the 
National  Educational  Association  Owing  to 
a  renewed  interest  in  physical  geography,  and 
to  a  recognition  of  tho  importance  of  obser- 
vational work  in  geography,  much  emphasis 
was  given  to  physical  geography  in  all  phases 
of  school  work.  Tho  first  geographies  which 
appeared  after  this  Report  gave  a  new  impetus 
to  school  geography  and  introduced  an  era  of 
progress  of  great  significance  Although  these 
early  books  placed  groat  emphasis  on  physical 
geography,  they  did  not  ignore  the  life  side., 
The  now  ideas  wore  grafted  on  to  the  old  with- 
out supplanting  it  to  any  great  extent.  They 
proved  the  importance  of  thought  work  as 


GEOGRAPHY 


GEOGRAPHY 


\gainst  memory  work  m  geography,  and  since 
that  time  the  endeavor  has  constantly  been  to 
make  geography  more  real,  more  vital,  and 
more  thoughts-provoking  to  pupils 

The  recognition  of  the  well-founded  educa- 
tional principle  that  pupils'  work  must  be 
based  on  previous  knowledge  in  all  fields  of 
study,  has  led  in  the  last  decade  to  the  inclu- 
sion of  home  geography  as  the  fundamental 
phase  of  school  geography  work  Home  geog- 
raphy is  planned  to  help  children  in  organiz- 
ing their  everyday  experiences  and  to  see  the 
simpler  relationships  of  life  to  its  physical  en- 
vironment illustrated  in  every  locality  Simple 
generalizations,  based  on  these  local  studies, 
lay  a  foundation  for  extending  the  children's 
work  so  as  to  include  the  world  whole,  which 
forms  generally  the  second  stage  in  school 
geography  work  The  development  of  the 
simpler  ideas  of  the  world  as  a  globe,  and  of 
the  distribution  of  the  continents  over  the 
world,  gives  a  background  for  the  earlier  study 
of  certain  of  the  continents  and  countries  of 
the  world,  through  maps,  pictures,  and  text 
Usually  these  earlier  phases  of  geography  are 
followed  through  the  fourth,  fifth,  and  a  part 
of  the  sixth  year  of  school  life,  up  to  the  time 
when  many  pupils  leave  school 

In  the  later  years  the  continents,  or  certain 
of  them,  are  again  studied  from  a  somewhat 
different  standpoint  through  the  sixth  and 
seventh  years  This  advanced  continental 
work,  in  which  much  attention  is  given  to 
commercial  geography,  is  usually  preceded  by 
a  study  of  certain  of  the  principles  of  mathe- 
matical and  physical  geography,  to  lay  a  foun- 
dation for  a  careful  causal  continental  study 
In  other  cases,  this  work  is  placed  as  the 
climax  of  the  course  as  a  specialized  phase  of 
geography  In  a  few  instances,  geography,  as 
an  all-round  subject,  is  closed  in  the  sixth 
year  The  geography  of  the  later  years  is  very 
specialized  and  is  devoted  to  the  commercial 
and  industrial  aspects 

In  by  lar  the  greater  number  of  large  cities 
in  the  country,  geography  is  taught  from  the 
fourth  to  the  seventh  years  inclusive,  though 
there  is  an  increasing  tendency  to  restrict 
geography  work  to  three  or  to  three  and  a  half 
years  By  far  the  larger  proportion  of  the 
time  devoted  to  the  subject  is  given  to  the 
study  of  the  regions  of  the  world,  since  po- 
litical geography,  as  it  is  often  called,  forms 
the  larger  phase  of  geography  that  pupils 
come  m  contact  with  in  after  life  This 
regional  work  naturally  includes  the  study  of 
physical  and  commercial  conditions  as  well  as 
of  political  conditions,  and  involves  much 
study  and  training  in  the  use  of  maps  as  well 
as  of  text  and  supplementary  materials  Such 
a  course  of  study  is  generally  followed  through- 
out the  country,  according  to  the  plan  of  the 
texts  in  use  In  an  increasing  number  of 
places  the  course  of  study  is  now  specially 
planned  to  meet  local  needs,  and  hence  the 


order  of  treatment  of  topics  and  phases  of  the 
subject  may  vary  extensively  In  by  far  too 
many  localities,  however,  the  text  forms  the 
only  course  of  study  used  and  the  yearly  pro- 
grams are  measured  m  pages  of  the  text 

There  has  been  great  progress  in  school 
geography  teaching  in  the  last  few  years 
Better  texts,  better  maps,  better  trained 
teachers,  improved  training  courses  in  normal 
schools  and  some  colleges,  and  a  larger  supply  of 
valuable  and  accurate  supplementary  volumes 
have  all  contributed  to  the  improvement  of 
the  subject  The  greatest  weakness  in  the 
field  at  the  present  time  is  a  lack  of  first-class 
wall  maps  and  a  dearth  of  reasonable-priced, 
accurate  school  atlases  In  these  mechanical 
attributes  of  good  geography  teaching,  the 
United  States  is  far  m  the  rear  as  compared 
with  Germany,  France,  the  United  Kingdom, 
or  even  with  a  small  country  like  Switzerland 

The  history  of  the  development  of  elemen- 
tary school  geography  in  this  country  has 
shown  that  progress  has  always  been  made 
through  evolution  and  not  by  revolutions  m 
content  or  plan  It  is  not  likely  that  the 
general  content  of  elementary  school  work  in 
geography,  the  outgrowth  of  generations  of 
experience,  will  be  overturned  in  the  future 
As  old  subjects  are  tested  by  modern  scien- 
tific methods  and  found  wanting,  they  will  be 
replaced  by  more  rational  and  vital  topics 
Much  progress  has  been  made  in  eliminating 
from  school  work  topics  in  geography  that  are 
not  pertinent  to  the  needs  of  pupils,  and  which 
are  too  adult  for  school  use  A  conservative 
public  will,  however,  permit  such  changes  to 
be  made  only  slowly,  while  the  demand  that 
all  that  is  new  and  perhaps  of  little  value  should 
be  included,  is  widespread  and  insistent  The 
great  problem  for  the  futuie  is  the  judicnus 
modification  of  the  course  under  the  expeit 
guidance  of  trained  and  interested  geographers 
and  leaders  in  modern  education 

Secondary  School  Geography  —  Secondary 
school  geography  in  geneial  falls  into  three 
categories,  according  to  whether  the  work  is 
presented  in  the  earlier  or  later  years  of  the 
course.  Physical  geography  is  the  favored 
phase  of  geography  in  secondary  schools  and 
receives  the  greatest  attention  in  the  first  or 
second  year  of  the  course  In  many  schools, 
particularly  those  preparing  pupils  for  college 
entrance  examinations,  an  advanced  type  of 
physical  geography  or  physiography,  as  it  is 
often  termed,  has  a  place  in  the  later  years  of 
the  course  Until  within  recent  years,  physical 
geography  has  been  given  a  place  in  secondary 
schools  because  of  its  informational  value,  and 
its  content  was  determined  from  that  stand- 
point As  thus  presented,  it  had  no  unity  and 
little  value  as  a  science  The  development  of 
physical  geography  by  American  workers  in 
field  and  classroom  has  shown  the  subject  to 
be  rich  and  full  as  a  cultural  and  scientific 
study  In  consequence,  the  pendulum  has 


31 


GEOGRAPHY 


GEOGRAPHY 


swung  away  from  tho  older  informational  sub- 
ject toward  a  newer,  rationally  organized  phys- 
ical geography 

It  is  now  generally  recognized  that  enthu- 
siasm for  the  newer  point  of  view  has  carried 
us  to  extremes,  and  that  physical  geography 
as  such  has  received  an  undue  proportion  of 
the  time  that  can  be  given  to  earth  science  in 
secondary  schools  If  the  task  of  the  second- 
ary school  is  to  prepare  pupils  for  after-school 
life,  then  obviously  the  content  of  geography 
and  other  subjects  must  to  some  extent  be 
determined  by  the  conditions  in  the  adult 
world.  In  these  modern  days,  pupils  are  going 
to  be  confronted  in  the  business  world  with 
commercial  conditions,  and  through  the  press 
they  will  constantly  be  brought  in  touch  with 
the  general  geographic  conditions  of  the  great 
nations  of  the  world  The  development  of 
modern  commeice  has,  since  about  1900, 
caused  an  ever  increasing  attention  to  be 
devoted  to  commercial  geography  in  second- 
ary schools  As  a  rule,  this  needed  phase  of 
the  work  has  been  organized  with  little  atten- 
tion to  its  relations  to  physical  geography 
Like  the  latter  work,  commercial  geography  is 
found  prominent  in  both  the  earlier  and  later 
years  of  the  course  The  rapid  development 
of  commercial  geography  is  indicated  by  the 
fact  thut,  while  but  one  book  was  available  for 
secondary  use  in  1901,  at  least  ten  much-used 
books  exist  m  1911 

Commercial  and  physical  geography  are  so 
closely  related  in  a  causal  way  that  neither 
can  well  exist  independently  in  a  course  of 
study  Hence  the  demand  has  arisen  that 
these  phases  of  the  work  be  coordinated  more 
closely  in  secondary  schools  Two  committees, 
one  fiom  the  National  Education  Association 
in  1909,  and  the  other  from  tho  Association  of 
American  Geographers  in  1910,  recommended 
that  the  one  year  to  be  devoted  to  geography 
in  secondary  schools  be  divided  so  that  one 
half  the  time  be  given  to  the  essentials  of  phys- 
ical geography  and  one  half  to  commercial 
and  regional  geography  This  latter  recom- 
mendation is  based  on  the  conviction  that 
pupils  ought  to  study  the  general  geography 
of  the  United  States  Vnd  Europe,  at  least,  m 
the  high  school,  as  a  contribution  to  their 
general  training  and  as  a  basis  for  efficient  work 
in  history,  economics,  botany,  zoology,  and 
other  subjects  that  deal  with  facts  of  distribu- 
tion Physical  geography  as  a  college  entrance 
subject  has  never  held  an  important  place  in 
secondary  schools,  and  is  particularly  de- 
veloped in  large  public  schools  or  in  private 
secondary  schools  where  funds  are  available  for 
securing  the  necessarily  inclusive  and  somewhat 
expensive  laboratory  equipment 

England.  —  School  geography  in  England 
has  progressed  rapidly  m  the  last  few  years; 
though  in  many  ways  it  is  still  very  unsatis- 
factory, as  it  is  in  America  The  modern 
development  of  interest  in  geography,  particu- 


82 


larly  in  the  higher  schools,  dates  from  1386, 
when  the  classic,  report  on  geographic  instruc- 
tion was  published  by  the  Royal  Geographical 
Society  from  the  pen  of  Dr  J  Scott  Keltic, 
who  made  a  thorough  and  painstaking  study 
of  geography  teaching  in  England  and  on  the 
continent  In  general,  the  plan  of  work  advo- 
cated for  the  elementary  schools  of  England  is 
similar  to  that  m  America,  though  greater 
emphasis  is  given  to  physical  geography  m  the 
several  standards  The  plan  of  beginning 
with  local,  observational  geography  and  work- 
ing out  to  the  geography  of  the  world,  with  a 
special  study  of  selected  countries  in  later 
years,  is  followed  A  large  number  of  im- 
proved textbooks  and  books  on  teaching 
makes  effective  work  possible,  and  the  work  oi 
the  Geographical  Association  has  done  much 
to  arouse  teachers  to  a  realization  of  the  possi- 
bilities of  geography. 

In  the  secondary  years  much  more  attention 
is  given  to  regional  geography  than  in  America, 
and  physical  geography,  as  such,  has  a  dis- 
tinctly subordinate  place  The  work  is,  there- 
fore, well  coordinated  and  definite,  though  its 
content  is  largely  determined  by  the  examina- 
tions set  by  the  larger  universities  The  out- 
lines in  present  use  show  great  advances  over 
those  of  1885-1886,  and  indicate  how  far- 
reaching  in  its  influence  has  been  the  establish- 
ment of  geography  as  a  university  subject  in 
the  larger  universities  and  colleges  Inspira- 
tion and  guidance  have  come  from  the  leaders 
in  the  higher  fields  of  geography  teaching  and 
have  caused  a  very  significant  revival  oi  in- 
terest m  school  geography  Furthermore,  the 
leading  business  men  have  realized  that  Eng- 
land as  a  commercial  nation  must  give  more 
attention  to  geography  teaching  in  the  schools 
France  —  Geography  m  the  schools  of 
France  runs  in  cycles,  the  climax  of  the  two 
cycles  being  a  study  of  France  and  its  colonies 
Beginners  are  led  through  an  observational 
study  of  the  local  environment  outward  to  the 
world  whole  This  is  followed  by  a  study  of 
the  continents,  and  is  brought  to  a  summary 
in  the  fourth  school  year  in  a  study  of  France 
and  its  colonies  In  the  second  cycle,  which  is 
completed  in  the  eighth  school  year,  the  ele- 
ments of  physical  geography  are  followed  by 
a  study  of  America,  Australia,  Asia,  Africa, 
Europe,  and  again  is  brought  to  a  climax  in  a 
more  advanced  treatment  of  France  This 
work  is  largely  presented  through  excellent 
textbooks  which  order  the  content  of  the 
course  in  a  definite  way  In  the  secondary 
school  the  same  idea  of  cycle  is  followed  In 
the  first  year  the  history  of  geography,  physi- 
cal geography,  political  and  commercial  geog- 
raphy, and  a  brief  course  in  geology  constitute 
the  outline  of  work  This  is  followed  m  the 
second  year  by  a  special  study  of  France  in 
great  detail,  and  the  outlines  of  cosmography. 
The  character  of  the  geography  work  in  ttV 
later  years  is  determined  hv  the  special 


GEOGRAPHY 


GEOGRAPHY 


ef  study  followed  by  the  pupils  and  is  in  no 
case  complete  or  closely  related  to  the  earlier 
work  Thus  geography  teaching  in  the  ele- 
mentary and  secondary  schools  of  France  is 
very  largely  political  and  regional  geography, 
so  arranged  that  pupils  will,  as  the  years  pass, 
become  increasingly  familiar  with  the  geog- 
raphy of  their  own  country  and  its  economic, 
political,  and  physical  features 

Germany  —  Probably  in  no  country  in  the 
world  is  geography  in  schools  so  well  organized 
and  taught  as  in  Germany  Teachers  are 
trained  for  their  work,  and  the  supply  of 
available  books,  atlases,  arid  maps  is  without  a 
parallel  for  quality,  accuracy,  and  usefulness 
Excursions  have  been  developed  generally  as 
an  important  phase  of  school  work,  and  geog- 
raphy is  thus  a  matter  of  things  and  not  of 
words  or  imaginary  pictures,  as  is  so  fre- 
quently the  case  in  America  The  general 
order  of  the  divisions  of  the  course  is  similar 
to  that  in  America  Following  a  study  of  the 
home  surroundings  by  observation  and  of  Ger- 
many comes  a  brief  treatment  of  the  several 
continents  of  the  world  This  is  in  turn  fol- 
lowed by  a  study  of  the  continents  from  the 
physical  standpoint,  in  the  years  corresponding 
to  our  upper  grammar  grades  The  climax  of 
the  work  is  a  course  in  general  geography  with 
special  emphasis  on  physical  geography,  and  of 
political  and  commercial  geography  As  in 
America,  greater  emphasis  is,  in  recent  years, 
laid  on  commercial  geography  from  a  broad 
viewpoint  This  plan,  roughly  outlined,  differs 
little  in  general  plan  fiom  that  of  many  years 
ago  Progress  is  indicated  by  change  of  em- 
phasis of  details,  rather  than  in  any  variation 
in  the  larger  steps  of  the  course  A  pupil  who 
completes  the  nine  years  of  prescribed  work  in 
geography  has  a  good  knowledge  of  elementary 
geography  in  all  its  branches  and  has  learned 
how  to  use  his  knowledge  in  the  specialized 
later  school  \\ork,  with  great  profit  to  himself 

Methods  of  Teaching  Geography  —  Until 
within  a  few  years  geography  teaching  in 
American  schools,  both  elementary  and  second- 
ary, largely  followed  one  method,  —  the  pupils 
memorized  the  words  of  the  textbook  without, 
as  a  rule,  any  adequate  comprehension  of  the 
meaiviig  and  significance  of  the  material 
studied  Where  maps  were  involved,  these 
were  studied  m  the  same  wav  Pupils  were 
encouraged  to  search  maps  to  find  obscure  and 
well-known  places,  with  no  thought  of  giving 
tlujm  any  training  in  the  use  of  latitudes  and 
longitudes  Thus*  they  gained  no  assistance 
through  the  exercises  that  would  have  helped 
them  to  find  other  places  by  the  same  method 
In  recent  years  the  character  of  geography 
teaching,  in  both  elementary  and  secondary 
schools,  has  radically  changed,  although  the 
old  memonter  method  still  persists  in  many 
school  systems  where  the  teachers  are  not 
trained  in  modern  methods  or  are  out  of  sym- 
pathy with  their  tasks 

VOL.    HI  —  D  33 


As  the  former  method  was  uharacton/ed  by 
memorizing,  the  new  method  is  characterized 
by  reasoning  The  reasons  for  geographical 
facts  are  studied  with  the  facts  and  through  the 
facts,  and  the  "  casual  notion/'  as  it  has  been 
so  aptly  named,  is  the  keynote  of  geography 
work  In  this  study  of  the  relations  between 
human  geographic  conditions  and  the  under- 
lying physical  conditions,  much  use  is  made 
of  maps,  riot  merely  as  sources  of  informa- 
tion, but  as  valuable  media  for  depicting  geo- 
graphic features  of  all  kinds  Map  hunting 
has  given  way  largely  to  map  reading,  and 
pupils  are  taught  to  use  a  map  as  they  would 
their  texts,  as  one  of  the  most  valuable  bases 
for  study  In  the  specialized  work  in  second- 
ary schools,  great  emphasis  is  given  to  the 
map  study  of  land  forms,  ocean  conditions, 
climatic  conditions,  and  to  life  geography. 
The  new  point  of  view  in  reference  to  geog- 
raphy work,  and  the  realization  that  ability  to 
work  with  geographical  materials  is  of  greater 
value  than  mere  information,  together  with  the 
recognition  of  the  importance  of  making  facts 
and  principles  real,  has  led  to  the  introduction 
of  laboratory  work,  particularly  in  secondary 
school  geography  In  some  cases  laboratory 
work  merely  consists  of  the  desultory  study  of 
graphically  presented  facts,  because  the  curric- 
ulum calls  for  laboratory  work  Under  these 
circumstances  laboratory  work  is  often  an  irra- 
tional phase  of  geography  teaching,  of  little 
more  real  educational  value  than  the  busy 
work  of  the  primary  grades  In  the  better 
schools  laboratory  work,  however,  is  a  vital 
part  of  the  study  and  is  made  the  foundation 
in  the  first  presentation  of  most  new  topics 
The  influence  of  laboratory  work,  which  calls 
for  the  study  of  things  and  the  graphic  repre- 
sentation of  things,  has  had  a  large  effect  upon 
the  method  of  study  in  elementary  schools, 
where  observation  of  local  phenomena,  the 
study  of  land  features,  human  relations,  and 
industrial  conditions,  through  excursions,  to- 
gether with  the  study  of  weather  records  and 
similar  work  in  other  fields,  have  become  a 
vital  supplement  to  map  and  text  study 

Methods  in  Elementary  Schools  —  There  are 
many  different  methods  m  vogue  in  elementary 
schools,  either  for  portions  of  the  course  or 
for  the  course  as  a  whole  In  general,  the  best 
method  is  that  which  permits  the  individual 
teacher  to  make  the  best  use  of  his  personal 
powers  m  securing  the  progressive  advance- 
ment of  his  pupils  with  the  least  waste  of 
effort  on  their  part  A  skillful  teacher  makes 
use  of  many  methods  in  various  stages  of  the 
work  arid  does  not  attempt  to  organize  the 
course  of  study  about  some  one  plan  of  pro- 
cedure Among  the  various  methods  that  are 
used  sufficiently  to  be  named,  are  the  obser- 
vational method,  the  journey  method,  the  type 
method,  the  map-drawing  method,  the  topical 
method,  and  the  inductive  method  Masters 
of  each  of  these  several  plans  of  procedure  can 


GEOGRAPHY 


GEOGRAPHY 


avoid  the  dangers  and  develop  the  strong 
features  of  their  plans  so  that  the  progress  of 
the  pupils  is  secured,  but  mere  followers  of  a 
plan,  with  perhaps  little  reserve  knowledge 
and  a  narrow  viewpoint,  easily  become  the 
slaves  rather  than  the  masters  of  the  method, 
and  the  pupils  become  the  unfortunate  victims 
of  misguided  enthusiasm 

The  observational  method,  the  study  of  things, 
obviously  ought  to  be  followed  in  school 
geography  teaching  at  every  opportunity,  es- 
pecially in  the  home  geography  work  of  the 
earlier  grades  and  in  the  study  of  the  atmos- 
phere, land  forms,  and  local  industries.  Modern 
education  requires  that  all  subjects  be  made 
real  to  pupils,  and  in  no  subject  is  this  need 
greater  than  in  geography  By  emphasizing 
similarities  or  contrasts  with  local  features, 
distant  geographic  conditions  may  be  made 
real  This  requires  observational  work  at  all 
tunes. 

The  journey  method,  whereby  countries  or 
portions  of  a  country  are  studied  in  the  order 
in  which  they  would  be  seen  in  an  imaginary 
journey,  is  obviously  valuable  at  certain  stages 
Further,  this  plan  of  procedure  is  interesting 
to  many  imaginative  children  and  permits  the 
ready  use  of  supplementary  materials  The 
journey  method  followed  'blindly,  however, 
does  not  readily  permit  the  teaching  of  a 
country  as  a  whole  and  the  emphasizing  of 
causal  relations  This  method,  therefore,  seems 
better  adapted  to  the  earlier  than  the  later 
grades  of  a  school  course  Such  a  method  of 
procedure  causes  knowledge  to  be  related  to 
steamship  routes  and  railway  lines,  and  not  to 
be  centered  about  political  areas,  as  is  generally 
necessary  and  advisable  It  has  a  special 
value  m  the  early  study  of  the  world  whole, 
and  to  a  certain  extent  m  the  later  work  with 
the  commercial  side  of  school  geography 

The  type  method  is  found  in  use  m  various 
phases  m  American  school  geography  work. 
According  to  this  method,  one  section  or  area 
is  studied  very  fully  as  a  basis  for  comparison; 
and  other  areas,  similar  to  the  selected  type, 
arc  passed  over  quickly.  If  the  selected  area 
is  a  political  and  physical  unit,  a  lengthy 
study  of  the  section  may  result  in  an  over- 
emphasis of  minutiae,  so  that  the  area  does 
not  stand  out  m  the  pupil's  mind  for  its  salient 
features.  If  the  selected  unit  area  is  a  section 
about  which  some  human  interest  centers, 
and  is  not  a  political  or  physical  unit  m  itself, 
it  fails  to  be  a  geographic  unit  and  hence  is  a 
poor  basis  for  comparison  One  weakness  in 
the  teaching  by  such  types  is  that  political 
areas  are  studied  incidentally  and  perhaps  are 
not  clearly  understood  Yet  political  areas 
are  foundational  m  any  use  that  is  made  of 
regional  geography  m  everyday  life.  The 
great  advantage  of  the  type  area  is  that  it 
permits  a  careful  study  to  be  made  of  a  few 
sections,  so  that  pupils  may  get  a  real  com- 
prehension of  the  value  of  geography  and  so 

34 


that  it  provokes  natural  reviews.  The  latter 
fact  is  the  strongest  argument  for  following 
the  type  method  m  certain  sections  of  school 
work. 

The  map-drawing  method  is  now  but  little 
used,  though  a  generation  ago  it  was  much  in 
vogue  Pupils,  by  this  method,  are  taught  to 
draw  maps  by  a  rule  of  thumb  plan  and  are 
trained  to  visualize  their  products  For  pupils 
who  have  a  good  power  of  visualization,  this 
method  has  its  value,  provided  the  maps  arc 
drawn  according  to  an  understandable  scale 
and  on  a  projection  that  does  not  too  much 
distort  areas 

The  inductive  method  has  never  been  much 
employed  in  American  schools,  for  the  obvious 
reason  that  geography  deals  with  many  facts 
beyond  the  students'  experience,  and  a  real 
comprehension  of  these  impersonal  materials 
can  be  more  readily  imparted  by  a  plan  that 
consumes  less  time 

The  topical  method  is  generally  followed  in 
the  upper  grammar  grades,  though  the  title 
covers  multitudes  of  sins,  in  places  The  best 
use  of  the  topical  method  is  found  in  the  later 
years  of  school  life,  when  a  causal  order  from 
causes  to  consequences  can  be  followed  so  as 
to  give  training  m  right  methods  of  working 
and  thinking  The  topical  method  m  the 
lower  grades  generally  leads  to  the  blind 
memorizing  of  items  of  information  and  not 
to  the  development  of  pupils'  powers  of  work 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  method  followed 
should  vary  with  the  character  of  the  topics 
under  consideration,  with  the  age  and  abilities 
of  the  pupils,  arid  according  to  the  training  of 
the  teacher  Pupils  in  the  early  years  are 
interested  in  the  life  about  them  and  should 
m  general  work  out  in  a  causal  order  from  the 
human  and  life  conditions  to  the  underlying 
physical  influences;  m  the  upper  grades,  the 
causal  older  should  in  general  be  followed 
from  causes  to  consequences  Any  teacher, 
however,  who  at  any  time  finds  himself  getting 
into  a  rut  through  too  slavishly  following  one 
plan  of  procedure,  should,  for  the  sake  of  him- 
self, his  subject,  and  his  pupils,  at  once  vary 
the  monotony  by  changing  his  method  so  as 
to  arouse  his  pupils  into  activity 

In  all  school  geography  work  the  danger  is 
that  the  subject  will  be  presented  in  so  frag- 
mentary a  way  that  all  the  life  is  taken  out  of 
it  The  picturesque  side  of  geography  should 
not  be  neglected,  although  it  should  be  sub- 
ordinated to  a  well-considered  plan  of  pro- 
cedure This  side  can  be  brought  out  best 
through  a  rational  use  of  pictures,  specimens, 
and  supplementary  reading.  Obviously,  the 
excursion  should  be  an  important  part  of 
school  geography  work  in  this  country,  as  it 
long  has  been  in  many  European  countries. 
Public  opinion  must  be  trained,  however,  to 
the  appreciation  of  the  value  of  excursions, 
before  they  can  be  generally  used  in  large 
school  systems  School  excursions  (qv.)  are 


GEOGRAPHY 


GEOGRAPHY 


harder  to  conduct  than  class  recitations,  and, 
unless  in  the  hands  of  a  wise  teacher,  degenerate 
into  picnics  and  are  of  little  value 

One  important  phase  of  geography  teaching 
deserves  emphasis  because  it  runs  all  through 
the  grades  and  has  been  too  much  neglected  in 
recent  years;  that  is,  training  in  location  Lo- 
cation is  essential  in  geography,  but  it  does  not 
make  up  the  whole  subject,  as"  was  so  largely 
the  case  in  the  days  of  "  sailor  geography," 
with  its  lists  of  capes  and  capitals  Places 
and  features  to  be  studied  as  to  their  location 
may  be  divided  into  three  classes,  which  will 
be  found  a  good  working  guide  to  all  teachers 
The  first  class  would  include  those  names 
which  should  be  at  the  ready  service  of  any 
intelligent  person,  class  two  would  include 
those  names  which  ought  to  be  familiar  to  all 
through  their  school  work,  so  that  they  can  be 
readily  found  on  a  map,  class  three  would 
include  those  names  which  are  locally  signifi- 
cant, but  which  are  not  of  equal  importance 
in  other  regions  By  judging  any  name  accord- 
ing to  its  relative  importance,  according  to  this 
grouping,  any  teacher  may  readily  work  out 
for  himself  Ins  minimum  of  location  which  he 
will  develop  m  his  class 

Methods  in  Secondary  Schools  —  Modern 
methods  in  secondary  school  geography  are 
characterized  by  an  emphasis  on  laboratory 
work  In  many  of  the  larger  public  high 
schools  of  the  country,  specially  arranged 
laboi  atones  have  been  constructed  and 
equipped  with  extensive  collections  of  maps, 
models,  diagrams,  lantcin  slides,  illustrations, 
and,  in  some  cases,  with  specially  devised 
apparatus  for  experimental  work  in  the  develop- 
ment of  land  forms  In  schools  wheie  the 
commercial  or  industrial  phase  of  geography  is 
emphasized,  collections  showing  industrial  prod- 
ucts and  processes  have  proved  most  valuable 
equipment  The  laboratory  presentation  of 
topics  is  sometimes  preliminary  to  the  textbook 
and  class  study ,  in  the  larger  number  of  schools, 
where  the  program  is  rigid,  the  laboratory 
work  is  supplementary  to  the  text  arid  class 
work  This  relation  ought  to  vary  with  the 
subject  under  discussion,  for  obviously  some 
topics  cannot  be  presented  half  by  laboratory 
methods  and  half  by  classroom  methods,  as 
would  be  implied  where  the  subject  has  two 
class  hours  and  a  double  laboratory  period  a 
week  Certain  topics  m  geographv,  as  the 
study  of  weather,  climate,  and  land  forms,  can 
be  more  readily  approached  from  the  labora- 
tory side  than  can  topics  dealing  with  the 
ocean  or  the  distribution  of  plants  and  animals 

Laboratory  work  may  be  introductory  to 
topics  and  consist  of  well  thought  out  prob- 
lems presented  in  some  graphic  form,  or  it 
may  be  illustrative  so  as  to  give  defimteness  to 
the  class  and  text  work  The  excellent  supply 
of  maps  from  the  Weather  Bureau  and  the 
United  States  Geological  Survey  makes  this 
work  in  certain  subjects  much  more  feasible 


than  it  was  a  few  years  ago  The  lack  of  good 
laboratory  materials  in  certain  of  the  other 
fields  has  meant,  in  many  cases,  an  over- 
emphasis of  the  land  features,  so  that,  from 
text  and  laboratory,  pupils  have  secured  a 
warped  point  of  view  as  to  the  relative  value 
of  the  several  phases  of  physical  geography 
Newer  methods,  better  laboratory  manuals, 
wider  conceptions  of  the  right  content  of 
geography  in  secondary  schools,  have  all  con- 
tributed toward  the  improvement  of  labora- 
tory work  It  is  now  conceded  that  laboratory 
work  is  supplementary  to  class  and  text  work, 
and  not  coequal  in  importance  at  all  stages  of 
progress 

In  some  schools,  where  the  conditions  are 
favorable,  field  work  is  carried  on  for  a  few 
weeks  during  the  year,  but  field  work  has  not 
developed  to  the  extent  that  was  hoped,  owing 
to  the  difficulties  incident  to  field  trips  Field 
exercises  may  roughly  be  classed  m  two 
groups,  in  the  early  part  of  the  course  pupils 
may  profitably  be  taken,  afield  for  "  field  sight," 
—  that  is,  to  get  a  comprehensive  view  of  a 
landscape,  see  its  parts,  the  problems  it  pre- 
sents in  a  physiographic  and  geographic  way 
Such  field  exercises  form  the  basis  for  class 
and  laboratory  work  in  the  closed  season  of 
winter  In  the  open  spring  season  the  field 
exercises  may  be  really  "  field  work,"  where 
pupils  work  out  simple  problems  which  have 
been  previously  approached  through  the  labora- 
tory and  text  As  yet,  however,  excursions 
have  not  won  for  themselves  a  place  in  either 
elementary  or  secondary  school  geography,  and 
arc  little  used  except  in  the  study  of  industrial 
geography  through  visits  to  manufacturing  and 
distributing  plant  (See  EXCURSIONS,  SCHOOL.) 

Equipment  for  Teaching  —  It  goes  without 
saying  that  in  all  geography  teaching  a  good 
textbook  is  essential  More  than  one  should 
be  used,  if  possible  The  market  is  now  well 
supplied  with  good  texts  for  most  of  the  work 
of  elementary  and  secondary  schools  Labora- 
tory guides,  supplemental  volumes  for  reference 
work,  encyclopedias,  and  books  of  reference  are 
adequate.  The  great  lack  is  good  wall  maps, 
school  atlases,  and  ample  illustrative  apparatus 
for  elementary  schools  The  available  equip- 
ment for  secondary  work  is  in  some  eases 
overnch,  so  that  teachers  have  difficulty  m 
selecting  that  which  is  most  pertinent 

In  elementary  schools  atlases  are  practically 
unknown,  and  wall  maps  arc  little  seen  and 
less  used  Yet  wall  maps  arc  of  fundamental 
importance  m  school  work  Every  classroom 
above  the  third  grade  in  elementary  schools 
ought  to  have  as  a  minimum  map  equipment 
a  good  Mcrcator  map  of  the  world,  a  political 
map  of  the  United  States,  and  maps  of  the 
continents  to  be  studied  in  the  respective 
grades  In  the  uppei  grades  there  should  also 
be  physical  maps  of  the  United  States  and 
Europe  and  political  maps  of  all  the  continents, 
not  only  for  use  in  geography,  but  in  history, 


35 


GEOGRAPHY 


GEOLOGY 


literature,  and  current  events  Yet  this  mini- 
mum is  rarely  found  except  in  the  best  schools 
in  our  larger  city  systems  Outline  maps  are 
also  a  most  valuable  adjunct  to  class  work  and 
are  now  available  in  cheap  and  reliable  form 
Pictures,  lantern  slides,  stereographs,  specimens 
illustrating  products  and  industries,  models, 
and  government  publications,  in  great  variety, 
are  now  easily  procurable  They  form  most 
valuable  aids  to  geography  study  and  should 
be  used  wherever  possible,  provided  they  arc 
selected  with  care  and  are  used,  not  for  pur- 
poses of  amusing  or  merely  illustrating  points, 
but  as  really  definite  parts  of  class  work  from 
which  valuable  lessons  may  be  drawn  in  a  clear- 
cut  and  illuminating  way 

Many  other  valuable  forms  of  equipment 
might  be  cited,  but  a  small  equipment  chosen 
acording  to  a  well-ordered  plan  and  used  care- 
fully and  systematically  is  better  than  a  mass 
of  unrelated  material  used  just  because  it  is 
available  The  problem  of  how  to  use  illus- 
trative material  profitably  is  more  difficult  than 
how  to  secure  it  R.  E.  D. 

See  VISUAL  AIDS  TO  TEACHING. 

References :  — 

History   — 

BEAZLEY,  C  R  The  Dawn  of  Modern  Geography 
Vol  I,  300  AD  to  800  A  D  ,  Vol  II,  900  A  D  to 
1:200  AD,  Vol  III,  1260-1420  (London,  1897- 
1906  ) 

EuKitroN,  H  E  The  Origin  and  Growth  of  the  English 
Colonies  (Oxford,  1904  ) 

FISKL,  JOHN  Discovery  of  America  2  voh>  (Boston 
1898  ) 

JOHNSON,  CLIFFORD  Old  Time  Schools  and  School 
Bookt,  Chap  XII,  The  First  American  Geog- 
raphy, Chtip  XIII,  Later  Geographies  (New 
York,  1904  ) 

LITC\H,  C  P  Historical  Geography  of  the  British  Col- 
onies (Oxford,  1887  ) 

MILL,  H  R  ,  Ed  The  International  Geography ,  by 
S(vc?ity  Author*  (New  York,  1909  ) 

TOZRR,  H  F  History  of  Ancient  Geography  (Cam- 
bridge, 1897  ) 

WATM>N,  FOSTER  The  Beginning*  of  the  Teaching  of 
Modern  Subjects  in  England  Chap  III,  Teach- 
ing of  Geography  in  England  up  to  1660  (London. 
1909  ) 

Geography  in  the  Schools    — 

DAVIS,  W  M  The  Extension  of  Physical  Geography 
in  Elementary  Teaching  School  and  College, 
Vol  I,  pp  599  (>OS,  1892 

The  Progress  of  Geography  in  the  Schools  First 
Year  Book.  National  Society  for  the  Scientific 
Study  of  Education,  Part  II,  pp  7-49,  1902 

FISCHER,  H  Methodik  des  Unterncht*  in  der  Erdkunde. 
(Breslau,  1905  ) 

HALKIN  L'fSnseifjnement  dc  la  Geographic  en  Alle- 
magrK  (Biuxelles,  1900  ) 

HARRIH,  W  T  The  Place  of  Geography  in  the  Ele- 
mentary School  The  Forum,  Vol  XXXII,  p. 
759,  January,  1892 

KKHK,  G  GcsLhichie  dcr  Methodik  des  Volksschul- 
HHterruhh,  Vol  II  (Gotha,  1888) 

KELTIE,     J      SCOTT      Applied     Geography      (London 

1890) 
Geographical  Education      (London,  1886  ) 

TROTTER,  SPENCER  The  Social  Function  of  Geog- 
raphy Fourth  Year  Book,  National  Herhart 
Society,  pp  57-79,  1893 

See  also,  textbooks  hy  Herbertson,  Lvde  (England), 
Sehrader  (France),  Kirchhoff,  Fischer-Geistbeck 
(Gei  many) 


36 


Elementary  Schools   — 

ARCHER,    LEWIS,    AND    CHAPMAN      The    Teaching    of 

Geography  in  Elementary  Schools 
BAOLKY,  W    C.     The  Function  of  Geography  in  the 

Elementary   School      Journal   of  Geography,    Vol. 

Ill,  pp  222-233,  1904, 
CALKINS,  R  D      The  Text,  the  Course  of  Study,  and  the 

Teacher      Journal  of  Geography,  Vol.  IV,  pp.  164- 

167,  1905 

DAVIS,   W    M      Home   Geography     Journal  of  Geog- 
raphy    Vol  IV,  pp  1-5,  1905 
The  Teaching  of  Geography      Educ    Rev.   Ill,   pp 

417-426,   Vol.  IV,  6-15,  1892-1893 
DODGE,  R    E      Equipment  foi    Geography   Teaching 

Journal  of  Geography,  Vol   V,  pp  242-250 
GEIKIE,     ARCHIBALD      The     Teaching    of    Geography 

(Now  York,  1887  ) 
GIBBS,  D      The  Pedagogy  of  Geography      Pedagogical 

Seminary,  Vol   XIV,  pp  39  100,  March,  1907 
McMuRRY,     C     A      Special    Method    in     Geography 

New  York,  1903) 

MILL,  H    R      Guide  to  Geographical  Books  and  Appli- 
ances     (London,  1910) 
REDWAY,  J   W      The  New  Basis  of  Geography      (New 

(York,  1901  ) 
SUTHERLAND,  WILLIAM  J      The  Teaching  of  Geography 

(Chicago,  1910.) 
Symposium  on  Results  to  be  Expected  from  a  School 

Course    in     Geography      Journal    of    Geography, 

Vol   IV,  pp    145,  149,  155,  160,  1905 

Secondary  Schools    — 

CHAMBERLAIN,  J  F  Report  of  Committee  of  National 
Educational  Association  on  Secondary  School 
Geography  Proceedings  of  National  Educational 
Association,  1909 

Committee  of  Ten,  Report 

DODGE,  R  E  Report  of  Committee  of  Association 
of  American  Geographers  on  Secoiidaiy  School 
Geography  Jouinal  of  Geography,  Vol  VIII 
pp  159-165,  1910 

TARR,  R  S  ,  and  VON  ENGELN,  ()  D  Laboiatory  Man- 
ual of  Physical  Geography  (New  York,  1910  ) 

See  also,  references  to  laboratory  work  and  commercial 
geography  in  Journal  of  Geography  and  in  School 
Science  and  Mathematics 

GEOLOGY  —Relationship  to  other  fields 

—  Perhaps  no  science  shares  its  field  with  other 
sciences  to  a  greater  degree  than  geology  As 
the  science  of  the  earth,  it  treats  in  its  own 
special  way  subject  matter  that  falls  also  to 
one  or  another  of  nearly  all  the  sciences  for 
treatment  in  their  special  ways  Obviously  in 
its  function  as  the  history  of  the  earth  it  be- 
comes the  province  of  geology  to  treat  the  col- 
lective results  of  innumerable  agencies  arid 
processes  that  enter  individually  into  the  fields 
of  other  sciences. 

If  a  survey  of  the  whole  field  of  science  be 
taken  to  bring  further  into  view  the  genetic 
relations  of  the  several  subjects  of  study,  it 
will  be  seen  that  the  history  of  the  realm  from 
which  springs  the  realistic  phase  of  education 
discloses  two  coordinate  lines  of  evolution,  each 
of  which  embraces  a  series  of  progressive  steps 
The  one  scries  includes  (a)  the  cooperation  of 
chemical  and  physical  agents  in  the  formation 
of  minute  integers  leading  up  to  molecules; 
(b)  the  combination  of  molecules  in  the  forma- 
tion of  crystalloidal,  colloidal,  and  amorphous 
aggregates,  (c)  the  assembling  of  these  into 
the  lithosphere,  the  hydrosphere,  and  the  atmos- 
phere; (d)  the  coordination  of  these  in  the 


GEOLOGY 


GEOLOGY 


formation  of  the  completed  planet;  (e)  the  cor- 
relation of  this  with  kindred  bodies  into  the 
solar  system,  and  finally  (/)  the  assembling  of 
solar  systems  into  the  stellar  galaxy  The 
other  series  embraces  (a)  the  cooperation  of 
organic  agencies  in  forming  and  actuating  indi- 
vidualized plasms;  (6)  the  union  or  differen- 
tiation of  these  in  the  formation  of  more  com- 
plex living  organisms,  (c)  the  development  of 
a  system  of  transmittal  of  organic  acquisitions, 

(d)  the  initiation  of  reflex  and  sense  action, 

(e)  the  development  of  a  system  of  registry  of 
sense    experiences;     (/)    the    development    of 
sense  action  and  mental  registry  into   higher 
and  higher  derivatives,  until  finally  (g)  they 
merge  into  the  declared  forms  of  mental,  moral, 
and  social  phenomena;    in  other  words,  into 
the  very  working  ground  of  education  itself 
The  word  "  finally  "  is  intended  here  to  mean 
only  the  last  stage  of  human  vision,  not  at  all 
the  ultimate  in  any  sense.     These  two  series 
run   closely  parallel  to   one  another  and  are 
interdependent      They    in    themselves    imply 
better  than  a  long  discussion  the  relations  of 
earth  studies  to  other  studies      To  the  student 
of  earth  history  in  particular,  the  genetic  con- 
nections of  the  two  series  are  themselves  the 
best  expressions  of  the  vital  relations  of  the 
sciences  and  serve  as  the  most  reliable  guide 
in  interpreting  and  evaluating  their  educational 
functions      The  natural  paths  for  educational 
procedure,  so  far  at  least  as  genetic  considera- 
tions have  weight,  he  up  and  down  the  his- 
torical lines,  for  these  disclose  the  real  places 
that  have  been  taken  by  the  participant  factors 
in  the  natural  order  of  things      In  the  details 
of  a  formal  study  there  is  a  choice  between 
starting  with  the  more  primitive  and  the  more 
undifferentiated   and   thence    working   toward 
the  more  segregate  and  the  more  individual, 
and  as  an  alternative,  starting  with  the  last 
stages,  the  end  products  for  the  time  being, 
and    working    backwards    along    the    lines    of 
genesis   toward   the   more   primitive   and   the 
more  undifferentiated,  but  in  natural  practice 
—  with  little  doubt  the  best  practice  —  both 
courses    have    been    followed    interchangeably 
and  often  in  suoh  close  succession  as  to  make 
the  method  a  type  of  reversible  mental  action, 
an  almost  spontaneous  gliding  from  antecedent 
to  consequent  and  immediately  back  from  con- 
sequent  to    antecedent,    from    parent   to    off- 
spring   and    at    once    back    from   offspimg   to 
parent,  and  so  up  and  down  from  one  link  of 
the  genetic  chain  to  another  in  either  direction, 
as  occasion  offers 

It  is  of  course  fully  recognized  that  when 
the  historical  or  genetic  factor  has  little  in- 
structional value,  which  is  perhaps  only  true 
when  it  is  unimportant  to  know  how  the  sub- 
ject or  the  state  under  study  grows  out  of  or 
grows  into  other  subjects  or  other  states,  the 
educational  process  may  play  more  freely  to 
and  fro  across  the  lines  of  natural  sequence  or 
in  neglect  of  them.  It  is  of  course  recognized 


37 


that  underlying  tho  whole  web  and  woof  of 
antecedents  arid  consequents  there  are  many 
factors  common  to  several  01  to  all  lines  of 
succession  and  these  may  be  treated  to  ad- 
vantage independently,  artificially,  or  "  ab- 
stractly "  and  precedence  given  to  their  own 
kinships  of  qualities  rather  than  their  genetic 
or  historical  relationships  This  mode  and  the 
genetic  mode  are  complementary  anol  coordi- 
nate, not  antagonistic  or  even  competitive 

The  Essential  Factors  of  Earth  Study  —  The 
study  of  our  dwelling  place  involves  four  main 
factors:  (1)  the  study  of  the  birth  of  the  earth; 
(2)  the  study  of  its  structure  and  composition, 
i  e.  the  earth's  mechanism,  (3)  the  study  of 
the  energies,  organic  as  well  as  inorganic,  that 
actuate  it  and  the  modes  of  their  action,  /  e . 
its  processes  and  its  dynamics,  and  (4)  the 
successive  interplay  of  these,  i  c  its  history 
From  the  higher  point  of  view  of  earth  science 
neither  of  these  factors  by  itself  can  yield  the 
highest  educational  results,  for  neither  leads  the 
mind  to  all  the  essentials  of  a  icund  view  In 
world  study  at  least  it  is  not  enough  to  know 
the  origin  or  the  mechanism  alone,  nor  the 
processes  and  energies  alone,  there  mutt  be  a 
study  of  the  actual  workings  and,  for  a  rounded, 
guarded,  balanced  view,  a  study  of  the  long 
chain  of  blended  processes  and  results  actually 
realized  in  history. 

Historical  —  The  Primitive  tftages  of  Earth 
Study  —  In  the  primitive  education  of  the 
various  peoples,  the  crude  products  of  earth 
study,  if  study  it  mav  be  called,  had  a  rather 
large  place  in  the  small  total  of  educational 
agencies  that  took  part  in  guiding  the  primi- 
tive ways  of  life  Such  information  as  was 
picked  up  and  handed  down  related  chieflv  to 
the  immediate  needs  of  life  and  may  be  said 
to  have  been  forced  by  daily  requirements 
rather  than  sought  for  the  love  of  knowing 
The  additions  that  were  slowly  made  as  time 
went  on  more  largely  took  the  form  of  a  widen- 
ing of  imperfect  knowledge  than  of  a  careful 
sifting  of  what  had  been  acquired  It  is  true 
that  then  as  at  all  times  testing  by  trial  sifted, 
in  some  measure,  what  passed  for  knowledge, 
but  it  was  incidental  rather  than  purposeful, 
and  the  critical  spirit  of  science  \\as  not  vet 
born  The  whole  was  very  crude,  yet  it  was 
very  necessary  The  primitive  school  of  earth 
lore  was  the  open  school  of  life's  necessities 
It  was  indeed  so  bioad  that  it  was  shared  by 
many  of  the  higher  animals,  each  in  its  own 
peculiar  way,  and  some  of  the  attainments  of 
these  animals  in  the  line  of  keen  geographic 
sense  and  acute  knowledge  of  local  topography 
compel  admiration 

The  earth  lore  of  the  human  race  in  these 
early  stages  was  chiefly  of  the  geographic 
rather  than  geologic  type  (See  GEOGRAPHY  ) 
There  was,  however,  some  rude  beginning  of 
acquiring  knowledge  relative  to  crustal  struc- 
ture and  composition  Caverns  were  explored 
and  occupied,  structural  material  was  chosen 


GEOLOGY 


GEOLOGY 


and  built  into  shelters  and  ho mcti,  stone  was 
selected  and  fashioned  into  weapons  and  tools, 
certain  ores  were  discovered  and  smelted,  and 
the  use  of  metals  begun.  A  crude  form  of 
economic  geology  was  thus  slowly  brought  into 
being  and  took  part  in  the  rude  training  of  the 
primitive  races.  There  can  be  no  doubt,  also, 
that  even  the  rudest  peoples  were  impressed 
by  earthquakes  and  volcanoes,  by  floods  and 
landslides,  and  more  or  less  by  the  gentler 
geological  processes,  but  these  impressions  seem 
to  have  tended  rather  to  weave  themselves 
into  fantastic  conceptions  than  into  sober  in- 
ductions of  the  scientific  order  While  these 
beginnings  of  geologic  knowledge  can  scarcely 
be  classed  as  science,  they  cannot  be  disre- 
garded as  elements  in  the  primitive  education, 
for  they  were  in  reality  germinal.  At  these 
early  stages  there  does  not  seem  to  have  been 
more  than  vague  imaginings  of  what  the  earth 
as  a  whole  might  be,  and  such  speculations  as 
were  indulged  in  respecting  its  origin  were  of  the 
rnvthical  anthropic  order 

Throughout  thin  primitive  stage  no  other 
concept  than  that  of  a  flat  earth  appears  to 
have  had  any  vogue;  and  so  the  belief  that 
the  earth  was  essentially  a  plain  may  be  taken 
as  the  most  tangible  criterion  to  set  off  the 
primitive  stage  from  the  more  advanced  stage 
that  followed  it  It  seems  strange,  and  yet  is 
perhaps  not  so  strange  as  it  seems,  that  the 
geographic  dispersion  of  the  race  should  have 
well-nigh  wrapped  the  earth  about,  while  yet 
the  notion  that  it  was  flat  prevailed  Even 
within  historic  times  and  among  the  Medi- 
terranean nations  of  much  lauded  intellectual 
attainments  it  was  regarded  as  a,  great  step 
toward  unity  and  completeness  to  be  able  to 
map  the  land  as  a  circular  or  elliptical  plain, 
girt  about  by  the  great  river,  Oceaiius 

The  Stage  of  Speculative  Extension  —  When 
the  epoch  of  the  flat  earth,  the  earth  of  com- 
mon vision,  began  to  give  place  to  the  spheroidal 
earth,  the  earth  of  corrected  vision  and  of 
scientific  imagination,  the  unscientific  imagina- 
tion came  also  into  play  and  a  whole  troop  of 
visionary  conceptions  of  modes  of  formation 
sprang  into  being  There  was  at  first  little 
restraint  from  chemical,  physical,  and  astro- 
nomical knowledge,  or  from  scientific  training, 
and  so  fantastic  speculation  ran  riot  for  a 
time  In  this  the  pre-Grecian  peoples  indulged 
freely,  while  the  idealistic  trend  of  the  Greek 
mind  lent  itself  peculiarly  to  this  indulgence. 
A  long  line  of  eminent  Greeks  drew  in  turn  a 
varied  series  of  pictures  of  earth  genesis  among 
which  the  metaphysical  were  dominant;  but 
still  these  were  stimulative  and  clustered  about 
some  substantial  seeds  of  truth  As  early  as 
the  sixth  century  B  r  Anaxirnander,  doubtless 
working  on  germinal  ideas  derived  from 
Thales,  set  forth  his  conception  of  a  fluidal 
evolution  of  the  earth  and  of  the  stars  He 
conceived  the  earth  to  be  round,  and  set  it  in 
the  center  of  the  universe.  Mystical  as  his 

38 


view  was  in  most  respects,  it  recognized  phys- 
ical stages  in  cosmic  development  and  was  the 
germ  of  a  new  order  of  thought  In  the  same 
century  Xenophanes  noted  the  remains  of 
mollusks  and  of  plants  imbedded  in  rocks  and 
took  a  step  toward  fossil  biology  This  was 
scarcely  a  step  in  paleontology,  even  in  em- 
bryonic paleontology,  for  Xenophanes  seems 
to  have  had  no  thought  of  a  series  of  ancient 
types  leading  up  to  the  present  types  and 
making  up  a  biologic  genealogy  He  merely 
recognized  the  burial  of  existing  types  of  life 
during  a  previous  incursion  of  the  sea  Xan- 
thus,  a  century  later,  and  Herodotus,  still 
later,  recorded  other  cases  of  fossil  remains 
and  strengthened  the  theory  of  former  inunda- 
tions Empedocles,  in  the  fifth  century,  studied 
Etna  and  noted  other  signs  of  internal  heat 
and  became  the  father  of  all  such  as  believe  in 
a  molten  interior 

The  doctrine  of  a  round  earth  grew  into  the 
creed  ^  of  a  school  when  the  Pythagoreans 
adopting  it  gave  it  a  congenial  metaphysical 
basis  and  made  it  popular  with  the  Greeks 
The  sphere  is  the  most  perfect  of  forms,  it  is 
therefore  the  fittest  form  for  the  homo  of 
man,  hence  it  is  the  form  of  the  home  of  man 
The  Sophists  and  the  Platomsts  as  they  came 
into  influence  still  further  pushed  into  ascend- 
ency the  dialectic  and  imaginative  tendencies 
in  earth  study,  arid  the  scientific  mode  of  pro- 
ceeding by  successive  tests,  never  as  yet  more 
than  feeble,  was  overwhelmed  There  was 
some  little  recovery  under  the  leadership  of 
Aristotle,  who  combined  in  a  singular  way  the 
speculative  and  the  empirical  methods  He 
recognized  stages  of  earth  development  and 
some  other  vital  features,  but  there  was  little 
of  the  spirit  or  method  of  modern  geology  in 
his  treatment  of  the  earth  Thoophrastus 
wrote  on  minerals,  stones,  and  fossils,  and  some- 
thing approaching  a  text  in  geological  lines 
began  to  become  available 

A  contribution  of  the  genuine  scientific  type 
came  out  of  P^gypt  when,  near  the  middle  of 
the  third  century  B  c  ,  Eratosthenes  measured 
a  degree  and  thus  laid  the  basis  for  a  real  esti- 
mate of  the  size  of  the  earth  To  this  solid 
contribution  he  added  various  hypotheses  of 
the  more  sober  order  relative  to  mountain 
chains,  to  the  former  presence  of  the  ocean 
above  the  continents  as  implied  by  fossils,  to 
the  work  of  water,  and  to  the  phenomena  of 
volcanoes  and  earthquakes 

The  Roman  period  naturally  brought  a  more 
realistic  spirit  and  in  the  course  of  the  wide 
expansion  of  the  Empire,  a  larger  need  for 
geographic  and  geologic  information  Strabo 
Seneca,  Pliny  the  Elder,  and  Pliny  the  Younger 
added  largely  to  the  stock  of  earth  knowledge 
as  well  as  suggestive  interpretations  of  the 
more  striking  of  the  earth  processes.  In  their 
treatment  of  volcanoes,  earthquakes,  sub- 
sidences, and  elevations,  as  well  as  the  work 
of  water,  they  often  touched  mterpretational 


GEOLOGY 


GEOLOGY 


grounds  occupied  later  by  the  older  school  of 
geologists 

Marinus  of  Tyre  and  Ptolemy  of  Egypt 
added  much  oriental  knowledge  to  the  accre- 
tions of  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  and  all  this 
material  coming  later  into  the  hands  of  the 
Arabs  was  partially  saved  from  destruction 
during  the  brecciating  stages  that  followed  the 
downfall  of  Rome,  and  thus  became  the  pos- 
sible seeds  of  a  revival  of  earth  study  in  Eu- 
rope when  it  emerged  several  centuries  later 
from  the  shadows  of  the  dark  ages  In  actual 
fact  the  revival  was  probably  more  largely 
spontaneous  than  inherited 

The  Transition  to  a  Truer  Basis  —  The  brec- 
ciation  of  the  Roman  Empire  not  only  involved 
the  destruction  of  a  large  part  of  the  material 
for  education  in  earth  science  that  had  been 
gathered  by  the  Egyptians,  Phoenicians,  Greeks, 
and  Romans,  but  the  catastrophe  was  followed 
by  the  rise  of  a  form  of  scholasticism  that  came 
to  be  a  grave  obstacle  to  the  resuscitation  of 
earth  study  on  a  true  basis  The  obstacle  was 
not  so  much  a  barrier  to  the  regathermg  of 
statistical  data  as  a  restraint  put  upon  the 
free  interpretation  of  the  processes  bv  which 
the  earth  had  come  to  be  what  it  is  To  fully 
appreciate  the  educational  contribution  which 
geology  made  in  rectifying  ethical  attitudes 
and  intellectual  methods,  the  sterile  obstruc- 
tive nature  of  the  retrocession  of  the  Middle 
Ages  must  be  duly  weighed 

The  issue  of  these  ages  at  first  centered  on 
the  nature  and  meaning  of  fossils,  not  alto- 
gether a  new  issue,  but  one  revived  with  new 
intensity  On  the  one  hand,  it  was  held  that 
the  lifelike  shapes  in  the  rocks  were  the  prod- 
ucts of  a  vis  plastica,  or  of  some  form  of 
molding  force  in  the  earth,  or  else  were  a 
Mephistophelian  device  for  the  deception  of 
jnan;  on  the  other  hand,  it  was  urged  that 
they  were  true  relics  of  former  life  entrapped 
in  the  growing  sediments  in  the  natural  course 
of  events  It  was  at  bottom  an  ethical  issue, 
a  question  as  to  the  integrity  and  fidelity  of 
the  record  of  creation,  if  not  of  the  honesty  of 
the  creation  itself 

Although  Xenophanes  had  recognized  the 
genuineness  of  fossils  in  the  sixth  century  B  c 
and  had  been  followed  by  many  others  in  the 
classical  ages,  so  great  was  the  retrocession 
attending  the  breakup  of  the  Roman  Empire 
and  so  deep  was  the  neglect  into  which  deter- 
minate data  had  fallen  through  the  establish- 
ment of  medieval  scholasticism,  that  Leo- 
nardo da  Vinci  in  reaffirming  the  genuineness 
of  fossils  was  perhaps  as  much  a  pioneer  in  the 
fifteenth  century  A  D  as  Xenophanes  had  been 
in  the  sixth  century  B  c  and  no  doubt  had 
greater  need  of  courage  The  views  of  Da 
Vinci  were  probably  original,  at  least  they  were 
concrete  and  based  on  the  close  and  accurate 
observations  of  an  engineer  and  an  artist 
While  Da  Vinci  clearly  recognized  that  fossils 
implied  changes  of  land  and  sea  and  were 

39 


marks  of  former  crust  a  1  eventb,  it  is  not  cleat 
that  he  saw  m  them  the  reeoid  of  a  succession 
of  different  faunas  arid  floras      Besides  others, 
he  was  followed  by  Alexander,  who  had  ob- 
served fossils  in  the  Calabnan  mountains,  and 
notably  by   Francastono,   who  built  a  strong 
argument  on  the  fossils  of  the  rocks  of  Verona 
As  soon  as  the   genuineness  of  fossils   had 
made  appreciable  headway  against  the  imita- 
tiomsts  or  simulatiomsts,  the  issue  took  on  a 
new  phase,  in  which  the  two  parties  were  those 
who  assigned  the  fossils  to  the  Noachian  deluge 
and  those  who  held  that  they  recorded  a  much 
more  ancient  historv,  the  diluviahsts  and  the 
nascent    paleontologists      In   the    belief    in    a 
Noachian  flood  then  prevalent  there   was  at 
once  an  element  of  aid  and  a  deterrent      With 
such  a  belief,  it  was  not  unnatural  that  fossils 
should  at  first  be  thought  to  be  relics  of  that 
flood,  and  proof  of  it      Not  unnaturally  this 
belief  prompted  the  collection  and  description 
of  these  diluvu  universally  tester  and  so  added 
data   and    broadened   interest      At   the   bame 
tune,    the    belief    developed    and    deeplv    im- 
planted an  erroneous  element  of  interpretation 
that  soon  grew  to  be  a  formidable  barrier  to 
the  true  view      But  with  the  best  minds  the 
very  attempt  to  make  the  fossils  serve  as  wit- 
nesses to  the  deluge  led  to  observations  incon- 
sistent with  so  recent  and  so  brief  an  event 
and  turned  them  toward  the  true  vie\\      Nico- 
las Steno,   in  the   middle   of  the  seventeenth 
century,  followed  a  little  later  by   Valhsncri, 
Moro,  and  Generelli,  gave  start  to  an  Italian 
school    working    somewhat    on    modern   lines 
They  are  perhaps  entitled  to  be  regarded  as 
the  pioneers  of  modern  historical  geology      In 
the  later  pait  of  that  century,  Robert  Hooke 
of  England  became  the  pioneer  of  an  English 
school  of  a  similar  type,  and  here  and  there  in 
other  parts  of  Europe  there  arose  centers  of 
like    order    which    spread   the   leaven    of    the 
nascent    modern    movement,    so   that   by    the 
middle  of  the  eighteenth  century  the  pioneers 
of  the  modern  school  had  gamed  a  Him  foot- 
ing     Meanwhile  the  advocates  of  mystic  simu- 
lation or  of  Mephistophelian  purpose  had  fallen 
into  discredit,  but  the  diluviahsts  still  retained 
a  large  and  influential  following      This  school 
can  scarcely  be  said  to  have  lost  a  place  among 
contributors  to  geologic  data  until  the  strati- 
graphic  series  had  been  worked  out  so  fully  as 
to  leave  no  question  that  there  had  been  a 
long  series  of  successive  depositions  m  which 
there  was  imbedded  a  like  succession  of  faunas, 
a  work  which,  though  much  advanced  by  many 
workers  in  the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth 
century,   did  not  become  a  declared  achieve- 
ment until  William  Smith  of  England,  Cuvier 
of  France,  and  others  of  the  early  nineteenth 
century    had   brought   paleontological    science 
into  clear  definition  based  on  irrefragible  evi- 
dence     Meanwhile,   however,   the  diluviahsts 
were  being  gradually  replaced  by  a  catastrophic 
school  who  assigned  the  successions  of  ancient 


GEOLOGY 

life  io  a  seiies  of  creations  following  previous 
general  01  pai  lial  destiuctioiib 

\\hilo  those  (iiicinl  issues  lelativc  to  life 
hold  the  f i out  of  tlif  stage,  notable  advances 
had  been  made  on  the  inorganic  side  resulting 
in  a  broader  and  moie  specific  knowledge  of  the 
composition  and  structure  of  the  rocks  Tins 
was  in  part  incidental  to  the  study  of  the 
strata  and  the  fossils  and  m  part  stimulated 
by  economic  considerations,  but  it  arose  also 
in  part  from  a  growing  desire  to  know  for  its 
own  sake  Leonardo  da  Vinci,  Nicolas  Steno, 
and  others  who  had  taken  leading  parts  in  the 
organic  problem,  were  large  contributors  here 
also  Lchmaim,  Fuchsel,  Arduino,  and  others 
assembled  and  systematized  the  existing  knowl- 
edge of  minerals,  rocks,  ores,  and  structural 
phenomena,  and  began  tabulations  of  strati- 
graphical  sequence 

Just  at  the  turn  of  the  century  a  notable 
issue  arose  between  those  who  held  that  the 
basal  rocks  were  formed  by  crystallization 
from  solution  in  water,  the  Neptumsts,  led  by 
Werner,  and  those  who  held  that  they  were 
formed  by  solidification  from  the  molten  state, 
the  Plutomsts,  led  by  Ilutton  The  issue 
went  over  into  the  nineteenth  century,  opinion 
drifting  toward  the  Huttoman  side 

Concurrent  with  these  special  movements 
on  the  biological  and  physical  sides,  there  was 
also  a  revival  of  theoretical  effort  on  some- 
what firmei  grounds  than  those  that  stimu- 
lated the  Cheek  speculations  Descartes, 
Leibnitz,  and  Buffon  gave  forth  views  of  the 
formative  stages  of  the  earth,  which,  though 
inadequate  or  erroneous,  served  to  gather 
the  scattered  thought  of  the  time  into  unity, 
to  enlarge  the  field  of  view,  and  to  stimulate 
thought  in  quaiters  where  the  unorganized 
details  failed  to  awaken  interest  These  were 
followed  near  the  close  of  the  century  by  the 
speculations  of  Thomas  Wright  arid  Kant  and 
by  the  definite  hypothesis  of  the  Marquis  de 
Laplace  that  later  carne  to  monopolize  the 
term  Nebular  Hypothesis  Thus  the  latter 
half  of  the  eighteenth  centuiy  greatly  enriched 
and  gave  truer  trend  to  the  rather  crude 
rejuvenations  of  the  three  previous  centuries, 
and  in  so  doing  prepared  the  way  for  the 
more  rapid  and  sounder  development  of  the 
geologic  sciences  m  the  next  century 

The  nineteenth  century  was  in  fact  the  first 
round  period  of  really  well-organized,  wisely 
directed  geologic  effoit  During  the  early  and 
middle  portions  of  the  century  there  was  a 
pronounced  effort  to  harmonize  the  geologic 
record  with  the  interpretation  of  the  biblical 
account  and  with  views  of  creation  then  widely 
prevalent  Modified  forms  of  the  Laplacian 
and  Kantian  hypotheses  of  genesis  came  into 
general  acceptance  and  were  woven  into  these 
efforts  at  harmony  The  leading  dynamical 
interpretations  of  the  earth  were  made  to  con- 
form to  the  contractional  postulates  of  these 
hypotheses  The  molten  earth  of  Empedocles 


GEOLOGY 


and 


wan  a  scarcely  questione  fc' 
thought  to  have  a  him  basis  in  tie  ns(  ul 
internal  tomperatme,  in  volcanic  phonomoan 
and  in  the  cosmologic  hypotheses  1  he  early 
earth  was  conceived  to  have  been  enshrouded 
in  hot  gases  of  immense  volume  and  density 
which  suffered  progressive  depletion  as  time 
went  on  Widespread  uniform  tropical  cli- 
mates were  held  to  have  prevailed  in  the  early 
ages  and  to  have  been  followed  by  more  diverse 
and  cooler  ones  in  the  latei  ages  Seasons, 
aridities,  and  refrigerations  were  features  of  the 
later  periods  alone  and  by  forecast  were  made 
the  forerunners  of  still  more  complete  atmos- 
pheric consumption  in  the  future  leading  on  to 
a  final  refrigeration  Geological  progress  was 
held  to  be  marked  by  cataclysms  destioying 
all  life,  and  these  to  bo  followed  by  new  creations 
It  is  within  the  memory  of  the  writer  that 
complete  destruction  of  life  at  the  close  of  the 
Paleozoic  and  of  the  Mesozoic  eras  respectively 
was  taught  in  standard  American  colleges  and 
by  the  most  authoritative  American  textbooks 
At  less  important  stages  partial  destructions 
and  corresponding  creations  were  thought  to 
have  intervened  between  these  greater  catas- 
trophies  All  distinct  species  were  then  held 
to  be  new  creations  The  whole  geological 
conception  was  thus  made  to  consist  of  a  series 
of  catastroplncs  and  creations  in  which  the 
instructional  and  creative  factors  played  alter- 
nate parts  Every  tenure  of  existence  was 
thought  to  be  uncertain  and  the  termination 
of  the  whole  distinctly  foreshadowed 

There  was,  indeed,  some  dissent  from  the 
catastrophic  features  of  these  views  appearing 
now  and  then  far  back  and  growing  as  time 
went  on  Ilutton  had  urged  the  profound 
changes  that  could  be  wrought  in  tune  by  the 
ceaseless  action  of  the  quiet  agencies,  and 
Lamarck  had  urged  the  divergencies  of  living 
forms  that  might  be  developed  by  use  Play- 
fair  had  helped  on  the  Huttoman  views 
Lycll  near  the  end  of  the  first  quarter  of  the 
nineteenth  century  added  further  to  those 
views  and  rounded  out  the  whole  into  the 
doctrine  of  umformitarianisin  which  success- 
fully contested  the  field  with  catastroplnsm 
during  the  second  quarter  of  the  nineteenth 
century  and  came  to  be  the  creed  of  the  domi- 
nant school  in  the  latter  half  of  the  centuiy 

With  the  verity  of  the  geological  record 
firmly  established,  though  incomplete,  and 
with  the  competency  of  gentle  agencies  cease- 
lessly acting  sustained  by  a  strong  advocacy, 
the  way  was  prepared  for  a  favorable  recep- 
tion of  the  doctrine  of  derivation  of  plant  and 
animal  species  through  selection  when  ad- 
vanced by  Darwin  and  Wallace  near  the 
middle  of  the  century  Though  this  was  essen- 
tially biological,  the  establishment  of  the 
geologic  record  was  scarcely  less  than  an  indis- 
pensable prerequisite  to  any  wide  acceptance  at 
that  time.  The  profound  educational  effect 
of  the  doctrine  of  evolution  into  which  this 


40 


GEOLOGY 


GEOLOGY 


has  grown  is  perhaps  quite  as  much  due  to 
geology  as  to  biology  so  far  as  current  tunes 
are  concerned  The  revolutionary  effects  of 
this  doctrine  of  continuity  and  derivation  in 
the  intellectual  world  are  familiar  themes  and 
need  not  be  dwelt  on  here  further  than  to  urge 
their  dependence  on  the  verity  of  the  larger 
history  of  which  life  evolution  is  a  part  The 
full  depth  and  reach  of  this  revolution  as  an 
educational  agency  has  not  yet  been  realized 
and  cannot  be  fully  realized  until  the  further 
evolutions  to  which  it  loads  have  had  time  to 
take  tangible  form  and  pass  their  trial  periods 

The  opening  of  the  twentieth  century  has 
brought  some  of  these  further  evolutions  into 
tangible  stages  These  seem  to  foreshadow 
the  issues  of  the  present  century  From  the 
mystical  ages  down  to  the  close  of  the  eight- 
eenth century,  the  earth  and  related  bodies 
were  commonly  assigned  a  birth  from  chaos. 
During  the  nineteenth  century,  belief  in  a 
more  orderly  birth  from  gaseous  or  quasi- 
gaseous  scimchaotic  states  replaced  these 
In  the  closing  stages  of  the  nineteenth  century 
the  dynamics  underlying  all  these*  cosmogonies 
was  challenged  and  a  system  of  dynamics  of 
the  same  order  as  that  which  is  now  in  con- 
trol, entitled  planetosimal  because  embodied 
in  minute  masses,  offered  in  its  stead  So 
also,  instead  of  the  previous  assumption  that 
the  present  solar  system  is  the  first  and  only 
system  of  its  series,  the  firstborn  of  chaos, 
there  was  offered  the  hypothesis  that  the  cur- 
rent solar  system  is  but  a  rejuvenation  of  an 
eaiher  system  back  of  winch  may  he  a  genealogy 
of  systems  to  which  no  specific  limit  was 
assigned  It  carries  the  conception  of  a  slow- 
grown  solid  earth  in  which  a  niolton  earth  or 
a  general  molten  interior  may  probably  never 
have  been  a  feature  The  preferential  view  is 
that  internal  stresses  have  constantly  forced 
to  the  surface  molten  rock  with  its  included 
gases  as  fast  as  formed  in  working  volumes, 
thus  building  up  the  crust  and  feeding  the 
atmosphere  and  hydrosphere,  while  the  solidity 
of  the  interior  is  preserved  The  atmosphere 
is  made  the  product  of  cooperative  agencies  of 
supply  and  consumption  whose  mutual  action 
maintains  an  oscillating  equilibrium  within 
limits  congenial  to  terrestrial  life,  a  system 
that  presumably  may  continue  to  maintain 
the  conditions  of  life  for  eons  yet  to  como 
This  new  phase  of  umformitananism  opens  a 
forecast  of  indeterminate  duration  correspond- 
ing to  tho  enlarged  retrospect  it  opens  in  the 
rejuvenations  of  past  solar  systems  The 
whole1  constitutes  a  further  step  in  the  reduc- 
tion of  tho  catastrophic,  factors  and  the  exten- 
sion of  quiet  persistent  procedure  Kvon  tho 
rejuvenation  of  a  solar  system  is  made  no  more 
catastrophic  than  the  mutually  excitivo  effects 
of  passing  stars 

A  second  feature,  a  contribution  of  physics 
to  geology,  is  tho  discovery  that  some  of  the* 
atoms  of  the  earth  arc  undergoing  spontaneous 


disintegration  and  in  doing  so  are  shooting 
forth  particles  at  prodigious  velocities,  imply- 
ing energies  of  like  prodigious  order  This 
has  laised  tho  question,  as  yet  unanswered, 
whether  spontaneous  change,  and  perhaps 
spontaneous  organization,  are  not  universal 
functions  of  earth  matter  and  of  the  cosmic 
matter  to  which  it  is  related  However  this 
may  be,  the  new  phenomena  exalt  to  the  limit 
of  man's  imagination  the  activities  and  energies 
of  common  rnattoi  In  the  light  of  this,  the 
earth  appears  to  have  little  need  of  an  inherit- 
ance of  internal  heat,  its  volcanic  displays 
may  be  little  more  than  the  product  of  spon- 
taneous disintegration  within  Tho  energies 
of  the  solar  system  seem  adequate  for  the 
greater  projections  hackwaid  and  forward  which 
the  later  cosmology  had  already  assumed  on 
other  grounds 

This  sketch  of  the  growth  of  earth  science 
implies  the  course  of  education  through  which 
the  leaders  of  thought  and  tho  \\oild  at  largo 
have  passed  in  reaching  the  piesent  stage  of 
world  science  It  is  a  concrete  mode  of  indi- 
cating the  place  which  this  science  lias  occu- 
pied in  human  pi  ogress  Tho  phrase  "world 
science"  is  hero  used  pormissively,  for  it  is  thai 
rounded  conception  which  embraces  the  totahU 
of  the  earth  and  its  inhabitants  from  the  begin- 
ning till  now,  that  has  taken  deep  hold  on  the 
thought  of  the  world  and  has  influenced  its 
intellectual  development  Tho  branches  of 
earth  study  take  their  rndmdual  places  as 
special  sciences  under  tho  more  oompiehonsivo 
world  studv  Those  special  geologic  sciences 
embrace  the  subject-matter  of  most  of  tho 
courses  that  form  the  curricula  of  the  schools 
and  require  technical  pedagogical  treatment 

Deployment  of  the  Geologic  Sciences  — 
While  the  very  essence  of  idoal  geology  is  the 
unitary  treatment  of  tho  organized  totality  of 
earth  knowledge,  its  actual  giowth  as  a  science 
and  as  a  school  study  has  diverged  widely 
from  this  idoal  Paiticular  phases  of  the  sub- 
ject have  boon  taken  up  moio  01  loss  sporadi- 
cally as  conditions  invited,  and  this  has  given 
a  lack  of  symmetry  to  its  several  stages  Tho 
geographic  phase  was  the  earliest,  and  geog- 
raphy might  ideally  have  boon  extended  to 
embrace  the  earth's  composition,  structure, 
processes,  and  life  history,  and  so  have  em- 
bodied the  whole  group  of  earth  sciences  and 
the  whole  history  of  the  earth,  but  in  fact 
geographic  studios  wore  foi  ages  so  largely 
limited  to  tho  surface  as  it  is,  and  to  the 
present  relations  of  the  creatures  that  dwell 
on  it,  that  the  name  came*  to  denote  this 
specifically  and  tho  term  "  geology"  was  coined 
to  embrace  the  broader  study  that  arose  later 

Tho  geographic  mode  of  treatment  is  now 
being  extended  backward  into  tho  "  geologic  " 
ages  and  the  old  surfaces  of  the  earth  are 
being  worked  out,  and  so  there  is  in  process 
of  development  the  now  science  of  paloo- 
geography  This  is  worked  out  almost  wholly 


41 


GEOLOGY 


GEOLOGY 


by  methods  known  as  geologic  and  still  the 
results  are  assembled  and  interpreted  in  a 
geographic  sense  and  take  that  name 

So,  too,  while  the  earlier  geography  was 
mainly  descriptive  of  the  earth  surface  as  it  is, 
with  the  growth  of  the  spirit  of  inquiry  into 
processes  and  antecedents,  there  has  come 
into  the  later  study  a  search  for  the  origin  and 
meaning  of  the  surface  features  and  so  the  old 
form  of  "  geographic  "  treatment  has  grown 
more  and  more  toward  the  "  geologic  "  treat- 
ment, that  is,  toward  the  study  of  processes, 
former  states,  underlying  material,  structure, 
and  historical  meaning  And  so  the  two 
sciences  run  together  and  overlap,  as  they 
should  under  the  newer  view  of  the  true  rela- 
tions of  the  sciences  and  of  their  educational 
functions  The  real  fields  of  science  overlap, 
mterdigitatc  and  interfuse,  geography  en- 
velops the  earth  in  its  way  and  geology 
equally  compasses  the  whole  in  its  way;  not 
a  little  of  their  common  ground  is  identical, 
belonging  equally  to  both  and  belonging  ex- 
clusively to  neither. 

The  ground  where  geography  and  geology 
most  intimately  meet  is  embraced  under  the 
terms  physical  geography  and  physiography 
These  terms  are  in  part  used  synonymously  and 
in  part  distinctively  When  the  emphasis  is 
laid  on  the  physical  features  of  the  surface  as 
features,  the  better  usage  places  the  study  under 
physical  geography ,  when  the  emphasis  is  laid 
mainly  on  the  mode1  of  origin  and  the  processes 
involved,  the  study  takes  on  a  geological  aspect 
and  is  best  placed  under  physiography  as  that 
term  is  used  in  America  With  such  a  dis- 
tinction in  mind,  physiography  was  placed  in 
the  geological  group  by  those  who  were  pioneers 
in  the  educational  use  of  the  term  in  America, 
while  physical  geography  naturally  retains  its 
place  in  the  geographic  group 

Physiography  is  at  once  a  recent  school 
study  and  a  recent  development  of  geologic 
science  Powell  and  Gilbert,  pioneers  in 
enunciating  the  doctrine  of  the  base  level  and  of 
cycles  of  erosion,  arc  worthy  of  being  regarded 
as  the  fathers  of  the  science,  while  Davis, 
Pcnck,  Salisbury,  and  others  have  been  efficient 
in  developing  it  As  a  means  of  training,  it 
has  the  advantage  of  presenting  an  available 
field  at  the  site  of  every  institution,  if  urban 
modifications  have  not  destroyed  it  The 
processes  that  may  be  studied  in  action  or 
through  their  recent  results  include  a  large 
portion  of  those  that  enter  into  stratigraphie 
and  dynamic  geology  As  respects  mental 
discipline,  physiography  is  a  rather  rigorous 
naturalistic  study  of  processes  leading  on  to 
definite  results  and  forcing  rather  close  inter- 
pretations of  results  m  terms  of  their  causes 
The  actions  are  measurably  complex  but  not 
usually  so  intricate  as  to  confuse  careful  stu- 
dents. Physiographic  study  centers  on  physi- 
cal processes  and  touches  the  biological  and 
the  human  elements  incidentally  rather  than 


42 


primarily  In  this  limitation  it  keeps  on  fairly 
solid  grounds  and  trains  students  to  firmness 
of  mental  action  and  trustworthiness  in  inter- 
pretation These  are  its  virtues.  Its  self- 
imposed  limitation  lies  in  leaving  the  biological 
and  the  human  elements  to  be  developed  in 
similar  ways  on  their  own  grounds.  These 
cannot  just  yet  be  treated  with  the  firmness  and 
trustworthiness  already  attained  on  the  physi- 
cal side  and,  if  they  could,  their  fusion  in  a 
single  work  under  a  single  title  at  this  stage  of 
educational  development  would  be  one  of 
doubtful  wisdom  It  is  therefore  a  mooted 
question  how  far  the  stronger  treatment  with 
its  limitations  should  displace  the  looser  treat- 
ment of  the  broader  field  pending  the  develop- 
ment of  the  biologic  and  anthropic  elements  on 
firmer  grounds  The  argument  from  supposed 
superior  interest  is  scarcely  pertinent,  for  su- 
perior interest  usually  lies  where  intellectual 
success  finds  its  most  tangible  victories  The 
subject  is  touched  again  below 

When  inquiry  first  seriously  began  to  pene- 
trate the  earth,  it  took  note  of  the  composition 
and  structure  of  the  crust  This  led  to  some 
knowledge  of  sedimentary  rocks  and  to  the 
beginning  of  stratigraphy  and  historical  geol- 
ogy It  led  also  to  a  knowledge  of  volcanic, 
plutonic,  and  other  crystalline  rocks  and  thus 
to  the  geology  of  the  massive  terranes,  the  chief 
held  of  petrologic  geology,  the  complement  of 
stratigraphie  geology  It  led  also  to  the 
recognition  of  bowed,  warped,  crumpled, broken, 
and  shifted  rocks  and  thus  to  deformutive 
geology  (diastrophism)  This  embraces  the 
study  of  mountains  (orogeny)  and  of  the  more 
general  elevations  and  depressions  (cpeirogeny) 
Inquiry  led  also  to  the  observation  that  dis- 
torted rocks  have  usually  undergone  crystalli- 
zation and  chemical  modification  and  hence  to 
metamorphic  geology  The  whole  subject  of 
geologic  structure  may  be  embraced  under  the 
sub-science  geotectonics,  and  the  whole  of 
formational  geology  under  that  of  geognosy 
Vulcanology  grew  up  naturally  as  a  special 
phase  of  igneous  geology,  and  seismology  grew 
as  naturally  out  of  the  study  of  rapid  earth 
movements  of  which  earthquakes  are  the  most 
declared  form  All  these  phenomena  involve 
great  energies  and  thus  they  tie  geology  to 
physics,  the  common  borderland  of  which  is 
treated  under  geophysics 

As  the  studies  of  the  general  aspects  of  rocks 
were  carried  down  to  detail  it  was  discovered 
that  the  crust  is  composed  of  rock  elements, 
conveniently  known  as  rock  species,  and  that 
these  could  be  further  analyzed  into  definite 
minerals,  hence  arose  the  science  of  rocks, 
hthology  or  petrology,  or,  when  mainly  de- 
scriptive, petrography,  hence  also  arose  the 
science  of  mineralogy,  back  of  which  lie  closely 
chemistry  and  crystallography  Down  to  tho 
latter  half  of  the  nineteenth  century  the  study 
of  rocks  and  minerals  went  but  little  beyond 
naked  eye  examinations,  mechanical  tests  for 


GEOLOGY 


GEOLOGY 


hardness,  cleavage,  and  other  qualities,  and 
simple  chemical  tests  supported  in  some  degree 
by  full  chemical  analyses,  but  optical  methods 
were  later  introduced,  particularly  the  examina- 
tion of  thin  slices  of  rocks  under  a  polarizing 
microscope,  and  this  led  to  a  much  closer  study 
of  rocks  and  minerals  and  wrought  a  revolution 
in  the  sciences  of  mineralogy  and  petrology 
from  which  arose  the  sub-sciences  optical  min- 
eralogy and  optical  petrography 

Petrology  is  almost  inseparably  connected 
with  other  branches  of  geology  and  is  generally 
grouped  with  geology  in  university  curricula 
The  relations  of  mineralogy  are  less  declared  It 
is  oftener  grouped  with  geology  than  any  other 
science,  but  it  is  sometimes  associated  with 
chemistry,  sometimes  made  a  distinct  depart- 
ment, and  sometimes,  though  rarely,  coupled 
with  physics  on  account  of  the  optical  factors. 
The  best  criterion  in  such  cases  of  composite 
relationships  is  the  very  practical  one  of  letting 
the  source  from  which  springs  the  largest  stu- 
dent inteiest  be  the  guide  In  this  respect  the 
advantage  lies  largely  with  geology,  for  it  is  from 
geological  phenomena  that  interest  in  minerals 
most  largely  springs,  and  it  is  in  geology  or  in  min- 
ing that  mineralogy  finds  its  largest  applications 

The  industrial  and  ornamental  uses  of  rocks 
and  minerals  early  gave  rise  to  rude  forms  of 
economic  geology  and  these  utilities  have 
steadily  multiplied  until  this  phase  of  geology 
has  come  to  be  one  of  wide  application  It  is 
the  basis  of  governmental  geological  surveys 
and  these  have  contributed  greatly  to  the  de- 
velopment of  the  science,  not  even  excepting 
those  of  its  phases  that  do  not  for  the  tune 
being  seem  to  have  direct  industrial  importance. 
Through  its  economic  phases,  geology  becomes 
related  to  several  oi  the  technological  branches, 
as  mining  engmeeimg,  metallurgy,  ceramics, 
architecture,  etc 

The  fundamental  part  that  life  relics  played 
in  the  giowth  of  the  sciences  implies,  as  sug- 
gested in  the  historical  sketch,  the  educational 
relations  of  general  geology  to  paleontology 
When  well  deployed  in  an  institution,  paleon- 
tology usually  falls  into  invertebrate  paleon- 
tology, vertebrate  paleontologv,  and  paleo- 
botany  The  most  recent  science  on  the 
border  line  of  biology  and  geology  is  ecology, 
a  composite  study  of  life  in  relation  to  its  en- 
vironment As  a  study  it  is  close  akin  to 
physiography,  and  the  field  work  of  the  two 
is  conveniently  conjoined  where  both  are  well 
developed  in  the  same  institution  Physiog- 
raphy and  plant  ecology  aie  natural  running 
mates,  and  when  ecology  shall  be  extended  to 
animals  and  man  and  treated  on  a  firm  basis, 
physiography,  biologic  ecology,  and  anthropic 
ecology  will  form  a  triumvirate  of  peculiar 
educational  power  and  will  doubtless  set  at  rest 
the  mooted  question  mentioned  above  by  taking 
an  indispensable  position  in  standard  curricula 
as  effective  disciplinary,  as  well  as  intellectually 
nourishing,  studies. 


When  paleontology  shall  have  gathered  and 
elaborated  adequate  data  relative  to  the  psychi- 
cal phenomena  of  past  life,  this  will  quite  surely 
form  the  basis  of  paleopsychology,  which  will 
bind  paleontologic  geology  to  the  modern 
mental  sciences  and  cooperate  with  them  in 
dealing  with  the  earlier  stages  of  mental,  moral, 
and  social  development 

The  study  of  the  hydrosphere  is  a  vital  part 
of  geology,  for  the  activities  of  water  in  its 
various  forms  are  the  special  characteristic  of 
the  present  geologic  eon  The  geology  of  the 
hydrosphere  grades  into  the  special  sciences  of 
hydrology  and  oceanology,  as  also  into  glaci- 
ology  and  into  physiography 

The  atmosphere  has  long  escaped  un  adequate 
treatment  as  a  geological  agent,  but  it  is  rapidly 
coming  into  its  place  and  paleochmatology 
and  paleometeorology  ai  e  foreshadowed  sciences 
Geological  evidence  of  a  cogent  order  is  forcing 
an  abandonment  of  inherited  views  on  at- 
mospheric phenomena  and  opening  a  place 
for  these  new  sciences  It  was  thought  until 
recently  that  the  earth  was  enveloped  by  a  thin 
atmosphere  only,  beyond  which  extremely 
cold  and  nearly  empty  space  isolated  it  from 
its  km  of  the  solar  family  Closer  inquiry 
makes  it  clear  that  the  atmosphere  is  not  so 
narrowly  limited  and  that  there  is  some  ex- 
change of  matter  between  the  members  of  the 
solar  family  While  it  is  not  yet  dear  what 
quantitative  value  this  exchange  may  have,  it 
serves  to  bring  the  study  of  cosmologic  re- 
lations into  the  present  problems  of  geologv, 
and  to  suggest  that  cosmology  may  come  to 
play,  in  current  issues,  a  part  kindred  to  the 
more  spectacular  function  played  at  the  birth  of 
the  earth 

Geology  in  the  Schools  —  While  the  geneial 
geologic  knowledge  of  the  earlier  ages  grew  up 
from  the  incidental  observations  of  the  multi- 
tude as  they  came  into  contact  with  the  earth, 
geology  as  a  formal  study  came  into  the  higher 
horizons  of  the  schools  from  the  few  who 
patiently  worked  it  out  into  science,  arid  it  has 
gradually  been  working  downward  from  higher 
to  the  lower  horizons  A  century  ago  geology 
scarcely  had  a  recognized  place  in  even  the 
foremost  institutions,  save  in  certain  economic 
aspects  in  certain  schools  of  mines  Its  growth 
as  a  distinct  school  study  is  almost  compassed 
within  the  last  hundred  years,  and  inuoh  the 
most  of  the  growth  falls  within  the  last  half 
centurv  At  first  geology  found  a  place  only 
in  the  last  years  of  study,  and  it  has  crept  for- 
ward in  the  curriculum  only  slowly  The  chief 
reason  assigned  for  this  retention  of  a  late  place 
is  the  need  of  studying  so  many  other  sciences 
before  geology  is  taken  up  While  there  is 
reason  in  this,  the  logic  rests  upon  the  doubtful 
assumption  that  it  is  best  to  proceed  fiom 
science  to  phenomena  rather  than  from  phenom- 
ena to  science  It  remains  to  be  seen  whether 
the  advantages  of  rotation  and  reciprocity  in 
cultivating  science  may  not  be  as  conducive 


43 


GEOLOGY 


GEOLOGY 


to  productiveness  as  they  are  in  the  cultiva- 
tion of  soils  The  spread  of  geologic  studies 
seems  to  have  been  more  rapid  down  the  upper 
horizons  of  different  grades  of  institutions 
than  down  the  courses  of  the  same  institution ; 
and  so  at  present,  geology  finds  a  place  in  the 
upper  grades  of  secondary  schools,  while  it 
rarely  appears  in  the  first  years  of  the  higher 
institutions  But  m  some  form  it  now  has 
a  place  in  the  best  schools  from  the  high  school 
to  the  university 

Geology  and  Physiography  in  the  High  Schools  — 
A  notable  percentage  of  high  schools  in  America 
are  coming  to  offei  courses  111  which  the  agents, 
processes,  and  stages  of  fashioning  the  earth's 
surface  are  factors  Whether  this  is  done 
under  the  name  physical  geography,  physiog- 
raphy, or  geology  is  of  minor  importance 
The  order  named  seems  to  be  that  of  pre- 
dominance so  far  as  the  name  is  concerned 
It  is  impracticable  to  ascertain  precisely  how 
the  earth  studies  are  handled  on  the  average. 
It  is  safe  to  sav,  however,  that  the  genetic 
phases  of  surface  configuration,  the  vitalizing 
element,  have  rapidly  gained  m  emphasis  in 
recent  years  The  number  of  high  schools 
that  teach  geological  history  is  quite  a  minor 
fraction  With  the  growth  of  the  study  of  sur- 
face fashioning  processes,  m  essence  dynamic 
geology,  there  has  been  a  tendency  to  replace 
other  forms  of  geology  with  this  more  special 
phase,  a  gam  in  intensity  with  a  loss  m  breadth 
and  m  the  biologic  and  human  elements  This 
is  a  step  in  intensification  whose  value  can  only 
be  fully  seen  when  the  complementary  intensi- 
fication in  the  biologic  and  anthropic  factors, 
the  plant,  animal,  and  human  ecologies,  are 
brought  into  working  order  coordmately  with 
physiography  Plant  ecology  is  already  com- 
ing into  function  as  a  companion  study  to 
physiography,  and  both  are  well  adapted  to 
the  earlier  years  and  form  an  excellent  basis 
for  the  higher  ecologies  These  latter  are  m 
process  of  scientific  development  and  will  no 
doubt  soon  enter  upon  their  early  trial  periods 
in  the  schools  These  require  greater  breadth, 
equipoise,  and  maturity  of  judgment  and  are 
better  adapted  to  the  later  years  They  may 
well  follow  or  go  with  historical  geology,  for 
historical  geology  brings  into  view  the  great 
facts  of  past  ecological  experience  The  double 
couplet,  physiography  and  mscntiate  ecology, 
earth  history  and  sentiatc  ecology,  together 
cover  in  a  strong  way  the  ground  covered  in 
a  more  general  fashion  by  physical  geography, 
and  constitute  its  appropriate  successors  in  an 
effective  curriculum 

Physiography  and  plant  ecology  converge 
in  the  phenomena  of  the  soil,  which  is  a  special 
zone  of  contact,  They  come  to  be  particularly 
intimate  in  the  ecology  of  soil  life,  the  critical 
point  of  advance  in  agriculture  at  present. 
They  are  the  fundamental  sciences  on  which 
soil  science  should  rest  and  are  therefore  the 
sciences  that  may  well  be  given  in  the  high 


44 


schools  as  a  preparation  for  agricultural  science 
now  pressing  for  a  place  in  these  schools  Ani- 
mal ecology  has  a  similar  relation  to  the  animal 
industries 

The  present  status  of  earth  science  in  the 
secondary  schools  is  eminently  one  of  transition 
which,  though  marked  by  elements  of  con- 
fusion and  some  retrocession,  is  working  rapidly 
toward  a  vitahzation  of  geography  by  the  in- 
troduction of  the  geologic  element  all  down 
through  the  courses,  by  the  introduction  of 
physiography,  and  by  the  organization  of  the 
ecologies  as  more  thorough  treatments  of  vital 
phenomena  on  the  earth's  surface 

In  Normal  Schools  —  There  is  much  dif- 
ference in  the  work  of  the  normal  schools,  but 
the  standard  state  normal  schools  of  America 
usually  give  courses  m  physiography  or  geology 
or  both,  and  in  some  schools  other  geologic 
branches  of  the  group  are  taught  The  ap- 
pointments are  generally  fair  and  field  and 
laboratory  work  are  commonly  used  as  vitaliz- 
ing elements  The  introduction  of  strong 
courses  in  physiography  and  plant  ecology  in 
the  early  years  and  of  historical  geology  and 
the  higher  ecologies  in  the  later  years  will 
greatly  aid  in  vitalizing  geography  and  in  lead- 
ing on  to  the  successful  treatment  of  these 
subjects  themselves  m  the  high  schools 

In  Colleges  and  Technical,  School*  —  Geol- 
ogy has  a  recognized  place  m  the  best  colleges 
of  America  and  in  equivalent  institutions  else- 
where, though  there  are  many  weak  colleges 
in  which  it  has  little  or  no  place  In  the 
stronger  colleges  it  is  deployed  into  mineralogy, 
physiography,  petrology,  general  geology,  and 
paleontology  Economic  geology  is  not  un- 
commonly given  a  place  Laboratory  and 
field  work  are  usual  accompaniments  Geology 
is  even  accredited  as  an  entrance  study  to  some 
colleges  All  colleges  of  standing  are  pro- 
vided with  mmeralogical  and  geological  collec- 
tions In  the  best  colleges  the  full  sorvic.es 
of  a  professor,  sometimes,  though  but  rarely, 
with  an  assistant,  are  given  to  the  geologic 
group,  in  many  colleges,  however,  some  other 
work  is  still  associated  with  the  geological 

In  the  technological  schools  not  associated 
with  universities,  the  place  of  the  geological 
sciences  varies  from  an  amount  comparable 
to  that  of  the  colleges  to  an  amount  comparable 
with  the  provisions  of  the  better  universities 
Usually  the  emphasis  is  laid  chiefly  on  mineral- 
ogy >  petrography,  and  the  structural,  dynam- 
ical, and  economic  elements  of  geology.  For 
these  branches  the  appointments  are  usually 
good  and  the  work  m  graphic,  dynamic,  and 
geometric  lines  is  usually  superior  to  that  of 
most  other  institutions 

In  Universities  —  The  geologic  sciences  nat- 
urally find  their  largest  place  and  their  best 
deployment  in  the  universities  and  in  the  techno- 
logical institutes  of  comparable  grade 

To  form  some  idea  of  the  relative  place 
which  the  geologic  sciences  have  attained  in 


GEOLOGY 


GEOLOGY 


the  standard  Universities,  a  series  of  compari- 
sons has  been  made  between  the  sizes  of  the 
staffs  of  the  several  universities  of  the  largest 
and  of  the  medium  types,  and  the  total  num- 
ber of  students  m  these  institutions.  It  would 
be  more  satisfactory  to  compare  the  courses 
and  the  number  of  students  in  geology  with 
the  courses  and  students  in  other  subjects,  but 
the  data  are  not  available  In  comparing  the 
statistics  relative  to  the  staffs,  teachers  of 
mineralogy,  petrology,  paleontology,  and  geo- 
physics are  included  with  those  of  geology 
proper,  except  where  these  subjects  are  taught 
in  other  than  the  geologic  senses,  but  teachers 
of  geography  are  not  included  The  number 
of  students  used  is,  in  all  cases,  the  total 
attending  the  university  The  data  used  wore 
compiled  chiefly  from  Trubner's  Minerva,  Jahr- 
btich  der  gelehrten  Welt,  for  the  year  1910-1911, 
with  such  revisions  and  additions  as  could  be 
made  from  the  official  publications  of  the  uni- 
versities and  from  personal  information  The 
results  are  to  be  regarded  as  a  representative 
rather  than  as  an  exact  exhibit. 

In  the  comparison  of  the  largest  universities, 
an  attendance  of  3000  students  was  taken  as 
the  lower  limit  Of  this  class  there  are  43 
universities,  distributed  as  follows  United 
States  16,  Russia  6,  Austro-Hungary  4,  Ger- 
many 4,  Great  Britain  4,  Italy  2,  Spam  2, 
Argentina  ],  Canada  1,  France  1,  Japan  1,  and 
Koumamu  1  In  respect  to  total  number  of 
geologic  teachers  (those  of  professorial  rank  in 
parenthesis),  the  order  is  United  States  (57) 
96,  Austro-Hungary  (20)  26,  Germany  (17)  28, 


Russia  (12)  21,  Great  Britain  (9),  Roumama  (5), 
France  (4)  5,  Argentina  (3),  Canada  (3), 
Italy  (2)  7,  Japan  5,  Spam  (1)  2.  The  average 
number  of  geologic  teachers  per  university 
is-  Germany  7,  Austro-Hungary  65,  United 
States  6,  France  5,  Japan  5,  Roumama  5, 
Italy  3  5,  Russia  3  5,  Argentina  3,  Canada  3, 
Great  Britain  2  25,  Spam  1 

For  the  medium  class,  universities  whose 
students  range  between  2000  and  3000  were 
selected  These  serve  better  than  the  previous 
class  to  illustrate  the  development  of  geo- 
logical instruction  in  the  smaller  countries  and 
in  universities  located  in  the  smaller  cities  where 
urban  influences  are  less  pronounced  There  aie 
30  universities  of  this  class  distributed  as  fol- 
lows Germany  7,  United  States  6,  France  4 
Austro-Hungary  3,  Belgium  2,  Italy  2,  Russia  2, 
Canada  1,  Great  Britain  1,  Greece  1,  Sweden  1 

In  the  aggregate  number  of  geologic  teachers 
(those  of  professorial  rank  in  parenthesis),  the 
order  is  as  follows  Germany  (19)  28,  Italy  (5) 
15,  France  (10)  11,  United  States  (9)  10,  Austro- 
Hungary  (7)  9,  Russia  (3)  6,  Belgium  (5), 
Canada  (2),  Great  Britain  (1),  Greece  (1), 
Sweden  1 

The  average  number  of  geologic  teachers  per 
university  in  this  class  is  as  follows  Italy  7  5, 
Germany  4,  Austro-Hungary  3,  Russia  3,  Bel- 
gium 2  5,  France  2  5,  Canada  2,  United  States 
1  7,  Great  Britain  1,  Greece  1,  Sweden  1 

The  combined  data  for  the  two  classes  of 
universities,  which  embrace  all  that  arc  attended 
by  2000  or  more,  are  shown  in  the  following 
table  — 


COMPARATIVE   TABLE   OF   GEOLOGIC   STAFFS   OF   UNIVERSITIES   HAVING   2000  STUDENTS  OR   MORE 


I 

II 

III 

IV 

V 

VI 

VII 

VIII 

IX 

COUNTRY 

POPULATION 

No    0* 

UNIVER- 
SITIES 

TOTAL  No 
UNIVERSITY 
STUDENTS 

No    OF 
GEOLOGIC 
PROFES- 
SORS 

TOTAL 
GEOLOGIC 
TEACH- 
ERS 

Av   No 

PER 

UNIVHR- 

SITY 

RATIO  OF 
TRACHFRB 
TO  TOIAL 
STUDENTS 

RATIO  o* 
Gi-oiooic 
TEA<  HERS  TO 
POPULATION 

Auatro-Hungarv 

27,995,000 

7 

31,147 

27 

35 

5 

1    890 

1    799,857 

(1907) 

Belgium       .     .     . 

7,380,000 

2 

5272 

5 

5 

25 

1    1054 

1    1,477,200 

(1908) 

Canada  .... 

7,185,000 

2 

5289 

5 

5 

25 

1    1058 

1    1,437,000 

(1909) 

France    .... 

39,252,000 

5 

27,882 

14 

16 

32 

1    1743 

1    2,453,250 

(1906) 

Germany     .     .     . 

(>3,800,000 

11 

46,379 

36 

56 

5  1 

1    828 

1  1,139,286 

(1909) 

Great  Britain 

45,208.000 

5 

l.<  752 

10 

10 

2 

1    1375 

1    4,520,800 

(1909) 

Italy 

84,269,000 

4 

14,588 

7 

22 

55 

1    663 

1     1,557,682 

(1909) 

Japan 

49,769,000 

1 

5649 

5 

5 

1    1130 

1    9,953,800 

(1909) 

Roumama  . 

6,700,000 

1 

3878 

5 

5 

5 

1    776 

1    1,340,000 

(1908) 

Russia    . 

126,169,000 

8 

J7.564 

15 

27 

34 

1    1391 

1    4,672,92b 

(1908) 

Spam      .... 

19,712,000 

2 

9845 

1 

2 

1 

1    4923 

1    9,856,000 

(1908) 

Sweden 

5,377,000 

1 

2056 

1 

3 

3 

1    685 

1    1,792,333 

(1907) 

United  States 

90,000,000 

22 

87,433 

66 

106 

48 

1    825 

1    849,056 

(1910) 

Totals       . 

516,543,000 

73 

278,164 

206 

301 

4  1 

1    897 

1    1,666,268 

45 


GEOLOGY 


GEOLOGY 


The  average  geologic  staff  for  the  73  univer- 
sities is  4  1  The  largest  staff  numbers  17. 
The  average  ratio  of  geologic  teachers  to  stu- 
dents in  the  whole  73  universities  is  1 :  897. 
The  best  ratio  in  a  single  university  is  1 .  250. 
The  ratio  in  the  university  that  has  the  largest 
staff  is  1:412 

An  inspection  of  similar  data  for  previous 
years  shows  that  there  has  been  a  very  rapid 
increase  in  the  provisions  for  geological  in- 
struction, particularly  in  the  United  States 

Educational  Methods  —  Geological  educa- 
tion takes  on  two  distinct  phases,  (1)  instruc- 
tion at  the  institution  and  (2)  training  m  the 
field  The  intramural  work  takes  the  form  of 
lectures,  class  discussions,  quizzes,  conferences, 
personal  work,  seminars,  arid  clubs  Lectures 
hold  a  large  place  and  must  apparently  con- 
tinue to  do  so  in  those  branches  where  the 
material  of  instruction  is  not  yet  well  organized 
Systematic  quizzes  arc  used  by  many  teachers 
as  a  supplement  to  lectures  Class  discussion 
and  group  conferences  are  felt  by  many  to  be 
the  most  efficient  mode  of  training  when  the 
subject  matter  is  in  suitable  form  Confer- 
ences are  particularly  applicable  to  map  study 
where  only  small  groups  are  permissible  Per- 
sonal instruction  where  the  work  can  be  made 
individual,  as  m  laboratory,  experimental,  and 
thesis  work,  is  widely  employed.  Seminars 
for  advanced  work  and  clubs  for  reports  of 
individual  work,  critiques,  discussions,  lectures 
not  m  course,  especially  lectures  by  visiting 
geologists,  are  valuable  adjuncts.  Courses 
m  drawing  and  m  graphic  work  arc  given  in 
some  universities  (2)  Field  work  is  a  dis- 
tinctive feature  of  the  most  effective  geologic 
training  This  falls  into  two  classes,  the  cir- 
cum-institutional  and  the  remote  The  first 
is  often  immediately  associated  with  the  class- 
room courses  and  is  then  arranged  so  as  to  fit 
in  with  the  program  of  the  latter  It  is  also 
arranged  independently  into  systematic  courses 
occupying  certain  days  of  the  week  Occasional 
excursions,  not  exceeding  a  day's  duration,  fall 
into  the  circum-mstitutional  class.  The  dis- 
tant field  work  is  handled  in  a  more  varied  way. 
Often  it  consists  only  of  special  excursions  of 
a  few  days'  duration,  which  are  stimulative 
but  not  adapted  to  close  training.  Of  the  more 
systematic  work  a  three-course  system  is 
perhaps  the  best  representative  in  actual  use 
(1)  In  this,  the  first  course  is  shaped  to  follow 
the  earlier  classroom  courses  It  consists  of 
a  systematic  study  of  a  selected  area  in  the 
manner  of  official  geological  surveys,  and  is 
followed  by  a  report  on  the  work  by  each 
student  participating  The  time  ranges  from 
a  month  upward,  and  the  area  is  preferably  one 
of  the  quiet  type,  not  too  plainly  exposed,  nor 
too  intricate,  suited  to  promote  careful  search 
for  data  and  yet  to  yield  decisive  results  to 
diligent  students  (2)  The  second  course  con- 
sists preferably  of  work  on  a  larger,  more  com- 
plex, and  more  impressive  area  suited  to  develop 


46 


larger  and  more  intricate  conceptions,  and  to 
be  the  basis  of  reports  of  a  broader  type, 
Both  these  courses  are  under  the  immediate 
direction  of  competent  leaders,  and  the  num- 
bers participating  arc  limited  to  those  whose 
work  can  be  individually  supervised.  (3)  The 
third  course  is  individual,  arid  is  often  the  basis 
of  the  Doctor's  thesis  The  selection  of  the 
area,  the  plan  of  work,  the  choice  of  problems, 
and  the  style  of  report  are  chosen  by  the  student 
under  the  criticism  of  the  specialist  m  the  line 
chosen,  original  independent  work  being  here 
the  chief  end  sought  The  report  is  expected 
to  be  elaborate  and  presumed  to  be  repre- 
sentative of  the  student's  best  capabilities 

Special  courses  in  topographic  and  geologic 
mapping  are  given  in  the  best  institutions, 
sometimes  m  connection  with  these  field  courses, 
arid  sometimes  independently  Special  pale- 
ontological  or  other  specific  field  courses  are 
sometimes  given  Incidentally,  field  work  is 
often  done  m  vacations  in  connection  with 
official  or  other  geological  surveys 

The  advanced  work  in  geology  is  chiefly 
done  in  the  graduate  schools  In  the  standard 
institutions  it  involves  at  least  three  years' 
work  in  addition  to  the  more  general  and  ele- 
mentary work  of  the  undergraduate  courses 
Theses  of  three  kinds  are  prepared,  though 
rarely  all  m  the  same  institution,  one  prelimi- 
nary to  the  Bachelor's  degree  at  the  close  of 
the  undergraduate  course,  one  preliminary 
to  the  Master's  degree  after  one  or  more  years 
of  graduate  work,  and  one  prerequisite  to  the 
Doctor's  degree  for  which  three  years  of  gradu- 
ate work  is  usually  required 

Appliances  —  Equipment  for  geological 
work  centers  upon  an  effort  to  bring  nature 
as  close  to  the  student  as  possible,  and,  next 
after  field  work,  three  classes  of  appliances  are 
resorted  to-  (1)  actual  samples,  (2)  models, 
and  (3)  photographs  Collections  more  or 
less  vaneo!  and  extensive  aie  common  posses- 
sions. Practice  varies  in  the  emphasis  laid 
on  museum  exhibits  and  on  classroom  and 
laboratory  collections  respectively;  a  merely 
synoptic  exhibit  in  the  museum,  to  give  dis- 
tinct impressions  of  the  types,  and  large  work- 
ing collections  and  illustrative  collections  in 
drawers  and  in  the  classrooms  and  laboratories 
are  urged  by  some  experienced  teachers  A 
museum  so  located  that  the  students  are 
naturally  brought  into  constant  contact  with 
it  is  also  urged  Models  play  a  large  part  m 
a  satisfactory  equipment,  especially  relief 
models  and  raised  maps  Photographic  art 
has  made  valuable  contributions  here  as  in 
other  sciences,  ample  collections  of  photographs 
systematically  arranged  for  study,  photographic 
wall  exhibits  and  transparencies,  and  especially 
lantern  slides  with  lantern  fixtures  ready  for 
prompt  use  as  required  are  indispensable  ad- 
juncts. 

For  special  classes  of  work  the  requisites  for 
efficiency  generally  possessed  by  the  standard 


GEOMETRY 


GEOMETRY 


universities  include:  For  mineralogical,  petro- 
logic,  structural,  and  paleontological  work, 
laboratories  and  laboratory  appliances,  em- 
bracing working  collections,  models,  testing 
tools,  blowpipe  outfits,  chemicals,  rock-slicing 
machines,  microscopes,  goniometers,  photo- 
graphic and  other  appliances;  for  map  study, 
conference  tables  and  map  stacks  in  cases  that 
facilitate  access;  for  classroom  work,  wall 
exhibits  of  maps,  sections,  photographs,  trans- 
parencies, globes,  plain  and  in  relief,  with  ample 
lantern  outfit:  for  museum  study,  exhibit 
collections  and  drawer  collections  in  various 
lines;  for  all  classes  of  study  an  ample  library 
well  supplied  with  maps  and  preferably  or- 
ganized as  a  departmental  libiary,  well  situated 
in  the  midst  of  the  geologic  rooms  and  used  as 
the  students'  working  home 

Educational  Literature  —  The  available 
literary  material  m  the  geological  sciences  has 
been  greatly  enriched  in  recent  years  Re- 
visions of  standard  works  have  been  frequent 
and  new  treatises  have  been  added  at  short 
intervals  The  formulated  literature  of  the 
science  in  its  more  general  aspects  does  not  lag 
far  behind  the  science  itself  These  formal 
educational  works  are  .supplemented  by  geo- 
logical journals,  some  of  which  aie  published 
under  the  auspices  of  educational  institutions 
and  are  edited  with  a  special  view  to  educa- 
tional service  Bulletins  giving  the  results 
of  researches  are  published  by  some  univer- 
sities In  the  bioadei  educational  sense,  the 
numerous  official  surveys  are  effective  agencies 
and  their  reports  are  a  leading  source  of  work- 
ing material  Some  of  these  leports  are  es- 
pecially shaped  for  educational  purposes  So, 
too,  the  geological  societies,  both  in  themsehes 
and  in  their  publications,  are  great  educational 
aids,  especially  in  that  they  are  a  means  of 
education  of  the  educators,  a  function  of  the 
most  ladical  value  T  C  C 

References :  — 

AbAHhii,  L  J  11  JBibliufjruphw  Zooloym  tt  Gfofogur, 
a  gtnital  Cntaloyuc  of  Boohb  on  Zoology  and  Geol- 
ogy Knt  &  Kd  b\  Strickland,  II  E  ,  and  Jurdmo, 
Sir  Win  (Ray  Society  Public,  London,  1848- 
1864) 

COTTA,  B  VON  Geolog inches  Rt  jwitvrium,  ni  Hi  itrttge  zur 
Gettchichtf  dd  Geologic  (Leipzig,  1877  ) 

D'ARCHIAC,  E  J  A  D  DE  ST  S  Histouc  da>  Proves 
de  In  Geologic  (Pans,  1847-1849  ) 

GEIKIK,     SIH     A      Foundir*     of     (holoytj      (London, 

1900) 
Encyclopedia  Bntanniia,  1 1th  od  ,  s   \    Gtologi/ 

HOFFMANN,  F  Gexchichtc  d(r  Gfognome  (Boilin, 
1838  ) 

Intel  national  (ieolotfical  CoiiKivsh  Catalo(ju(  (/r,s  13ib- 
hogrtiphit'K  gtologujm**  (Parib,  1896  ) 

KEI-KRHTKIN,  C      Gcxchuhtc  und  Jjikmtut  da  GiogmtMt 
(Halle,  1840  ) 

VON  ZITTEL,  K  A  Gewhuhte  dtr  Gtoloyic  und  Pnl- 
itontologie  (Munich,  1899),  tr  by  Ogihie- 
Gordon  (London,  1901  ) 

GEOMETRY.  —  Etymologically  the  word 
means  earth  measure,  from  the  Greek  y»J,  gc, 
earth  4-  /xcrpov,  metron,  measure  It  has  come, 
however,  to  mean  the  general  science  of  form, 


47 


the  words  "surveying"  and  "geodesy"  being 
applied  to  the  measuring  of  the  earth 

History  of  Geometry  —The  earliest  doc- 
uments relating  to  geometry  come  to  us 
from  Babylon  and  Egypt  Those  from  Baby- 
lon arc  written  on  small  clav  tablets,  some  of 
them  about  the  size  of  the  hand,  these  tablets 
afterwards  having  been  baked  in  the  sun 
They  show  that  the  Babylonians  of  that  period 
know  something  of  land  measures,  and  perhaps 
had  advanced  far  enough  to  compute  the  area 
of  a  trape/oid  For  the  mensuration  of  the 
circle  they  later  used,  as  did  the  early  Hebrews, 
the  value  TT  =  3  A  tablet  in  the  British 
Museum  shows  that  they  also  used  such  geo- 
metric forms  as  triangles  and  circulai  segments 
in  astrology  or  as  talismans,  and  a  stone 
astrolabe  in  the  same  collection  shows  that 
they  knew  something  of  angle  measure 

The  Egyptians  must  have  had  a  fair  knowl- 
edge of  practical  geometry  long  before  the 
date  of  any  mathematical  treatise  that  has 
come  down  to  us,  for  the  building  of  the  pyra- 
mids, between  3000  and  2400  B  c  ,  required 
the  application  of  several  geometric  principles 
Some  knowledge  of  surveying  must  also  have 
been  necessary  to  carry  out  the  extensive 
plans  for  irrigation  that  were  executed  under 
Ameriemhat  III,  about  2200  uc 

The  first  definite  knowledge  of  Egyptian  math- 
ematics is  based  on  a  manuscript  copied  on  papy- 
rus, a  kind  of  paper  used  about  the  Mediterranean 
in  early  times  This  copy  was  made  by  one 
Aah-mesu  (The  Moon-born),  commonly  called 
Ahrnes  (qv),  who  probably  flourished  about 
1 700  B  c  The  original  from  which  he  copied, 
written  about  2300  B  c  ,  has  been  lost,  but  the 
papyrus  of  Ahmes,  written  nearly  four  thou- 
sand years  ago,  is  still  preserved,  and  is  now  in 
the  British  Museum  In  this  manuscript, 
which  is  devoted  chiefly  to  fractions  and  to  a 
crude  algebra,  is  found  some  work  on  inensu- 
lation  Among  the  curious  rules  are  the  in- 
correct ones  that  the  area  of  an  isosceles  triangle 
equals  half  the  product  of  the  base  and  one  of 
the  equal  sides,  and  that  the  area  of  a  trape- 
zoid  having  bases  b,  //,  and  the  nonparallel 
sides  each  equal  to  «,  is  \  a  (b  -f  6')  One 
noteworthy  advance  appears,  however  Ahmes 
gives  a  rule  for  finding  the  area  of  a  circle,  sub- 
stantially as  follows.  Multiply  the  square  on 
the  radius  by  (V)2,  which  is  equivalent  to 
taking  for  TT  the  ^  alue  31605'  This 
papyrus  also  contains  some  treatment  of  the 
mensuration  of  solids,  particularly  with  refer- 
ence to  the  capacity  of  granaries  There  is 
also  some  slight  mention  of  similar  figures,  and 
an  extensive  treatment  of  unit  fractions,  — 
fractions  that  were  quite  universal  among  the 
ancients  (See  FRACTIONS  )  Herodotus  tells 
us  that  Sesostris,  king  of  Egypt,  divided  the 
land  among  his  people  and  marked  out  the 
boundaries  after  the  overflow  of  the  Nile,  so 
that  surveying  must  have  been  well  known  in 
his  day.  Indeed,  the  harpedonaptce,  or  rope 


GEOMETRY 


GEOMETRY 


stretchers,  acquired  their  name  because  they 
stretched  cords  in  which  were  knots,  so  as  to 
t  make  the  right  triangle  3,  4,  5,  when  they 
wished  to  erect  a  perpendicular  This  is  a 
plan  occasionally  used  by  surveyors  to-day, 
and  it  shows  that  the  practical  application  of 
the  Pythagorean  theorem  was  known  long 
before  Pythagoras  gave  what  seems  to  have 
been  the  first  general  proof  of  the  proposition. 
From  Egypt,  and  possibly  from  Babylon, 
geometry  passed  to  Asia  Minor  and  Greece 
The  scientific  study  of  the  subject  begins  with 
Thales  (qv).  How  elementary  the  knowledge 
of  geometry  then  was  may  be  understood  from 
the  fact  that  tradition  attributes  to  him  only 
about  four  propositions  The  greatest  pupil  of 
Thales,  and  one  of  the  most  remarkable  men 
of  antiquity,  was  Pythagoras  (qv)  In  geome- 
try he  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  to  demon- 
strate the  proposition  that  the  square  on  the 
hypotenuse  is  equal  to  the  sum  of  the  squares 
upon  the  other  two  sides  of  a  right  triangle 
The  proposition  was  known  in  India  and 
Egypt  before  hih  tnno,  at  any  rate  for  special 
cases,  but  he  seems  to  have  been  the  first  to 
prove  it  To  him  or  to  his  school  seems  also 
to  have  been  due  the  construction  of  the  regu- 
lar pentagon  and  of  the  five  regular  poly- 
hedrons Pythagoras  is  also  said  to  have 
known  that  six  equilateral  triangles,  three 
regular  hexagons,  or  four  squares,  can  be  placed 
about  a  point  so  as  just  to  fill  the  300°,  but 
that  no  other  regular  polygons  can  be  so  placed 
To  his  school  is  also  due  the  proof  for  the 
general  case  that  the  sum  of  the  angles  of  a 
triangle  equals  two  right  angles 

For  two  centuries  after  Pythagoras  geometry 
passed  through  a  period  of  discovery  of  propo- 
sitions The  state  of  the  science  may  be  seen 
from  the  fact  that  Oonopides  of  Chios,  who 
flourished  about  465  B  r  ,  and  who  had  studied 
in  Egypt,  was  celebrated  because  he  showed 
how  to  let  fall  a  perpendicular  to  a  line,  and 
how  to  make  an  angle  equal  to  a  given  angle 
A  few  years  later,  about  440  B  c  ,  Hippocrates 
of  Chios  wrote  the  iirst  Greek  textbook  on 
mathematics.  He  knew  that  the  areas  of 
circles  were  proportional  to  the  squares  on 
their  radii,  but  was  ignorant  of  the  fact  that 
equal  central  angles  or  equal  inscribed  angles 
intercept  equal  arcs  Antiphon  and  Bryson, 
two  Greek  scholars,  flourished  about  430  B  r 
The  former  attempted  to  find  the  area  of  a 
circle  by  doubling  the  number  of  sides  of  a 
regular  inscribed  polygon,  and  the  latter  by 
doing  the  same  for  both  inscribed  and  circum- 
scribed polygons  They  thus  approximately 
exhausted  the  area  between  the  polygon  and 
the  circle,  and  hence  this  method  is  known  as 
the  method  of  exhaustions  About  420  B.C 
Hippias  of  Elis  invented  a  certain  curve  called 
the  quadratrix,  by  means  of  which  he  could 
square  the  circle  and  trisect  any  angle.  This 
curve  cannot  be  constructed  by  the  unmarked 
straightedge  and  the  compasses,  and  when  we 


48 


say  that  it  is  impossible  to  square  the  circle  or 
to  trisect  any  angle,  we  mean  that  it  is  im- 
possible by  the  help  of  these  two  instruments 
alone 

During  this  period  the  great  philosophic 
school  of  Plato  (429-348  B  c )  flourished  at 
Athens,  and  to  this  school  is  due  the  first 
systematic  attempt  to  create  exact  definitions, 
axioms,  and  postulates,  and  to  distinguish 
between  elementary  and  higher  geometry  It 
was  at  this  time  that  elementary  geometry 
became  limited  to  the  use  of  the  compasses  and 
the  unmarked  straightedge,  which  took  from 
this  domain  the  possibility  of  constructing  a 
square  equivalent  to  a  given  circle  ("  squaring 
the  circle  "),  of  trisecting  any  given  angle,  and 
of  constructing  a  cube  that  should  have  twice 
the  volume  of  a  given  cube  ("  duplicating  the 
cube  "),  these  being  the  three  famous  problems 
of  antiquity  One  of  Plato's  pupils  was  Philip- 
pus  of  Mende,  in  Egypt,  who  flourished  about 
380  B  r  It  is  said  that  he  discovered  the 
proposition  relating  to  the  exterior  angle  of  a 
triangle  His  interest,  however,  was  chiefly  in 
astronomy  Another  of  Plato's  pupils  was 
Eudoxus  of  Cnidus  (408-355  B  r  )  He  elabo- 
rated the  theory  of  proportion,  placing  it  upon 
a  thoroughly  scientific  foundation  It  is  prob- 
able that  Book  V  of  Euclid,  which  is  devoted 
to  proportion,  is  essentially  the  work  of  Eudoxus. 

The  first  great  textbook  on  geometry,  and 
the  greatest  one  that  lias  ever  appeared,  was 
written  by  Euclid  (q  v )  In  his  work  Euclid 
placed  all  of  the  leading  propositions  of  plane 
geometry  then  known,  and  arranged  them  in  a 
logical  order  Mo?  *,  geometries  of  any  im- 
portance written  since  his  time  have  been 
based  upon  Euclid,  improving  the  sequence, 
symbols,  and  wording  as  occasion  demanded 

The  Greeks  contributed  little  more  to  ele- 
mentary geometry,  although  Apollomus  of 
Perga  (q  v  ),  who  taught  at  Alexandria  between 
250  and  200  B  c  ,  wrote  extensively  on  conic 
sections,  and  Hypsicles  of  Alexandria,  about 
190  B.C  ,  wrote  on  regular  polyhedrons  Hyp- 
siclcs  was  the  first  Greek  writer  who  is  known 
to  have  used  sexagesimal  fractions,  —  the 
degrees,  minutes,  and  seconds  of  our  angle 
measure  Zenodorus  (180  B  r  )  wrote  on  iso- 
perimetnc  figures,  and  his  contemporary,  Nico- 
rnedcs  of  Gerasa,  invented  a  curve  known  a> 
the  conchoid,  by  means  of  which  he  could 
trisect  any  angle  Another  contemporary, 
Diocles,  invented  the  cissoid,  or  ivy-shaped 
curve,  by  means  of  which  he  solved  the  famous 
problem  of  duplicating  the  cube;  that  is,  of 
constructing  a  cube  that  should  have  twice 
the  volume  of  a  given  cube 

The  greatest  of  the  Greek  astronomers, 
Hipparchus  (q  v  ,  180-125  B  c  ),  lived  about 
this  period,  and  with  him  begins  spherical 
trigonometry  as  a  definite  science  A  kind  of 
plane  trigonometry  had  been  known  to  the 
ancient  Egyptians  The  Greeks  usually  em- 
ployed the  chord  of  an  angle  instead  of  the 


GEOMETRY 


GEOMETRY 


half  chord  (sine),  the  lattrr  having  been  pre- 
ferred by  the  later  Arab  writers  The  most 
celebrated  of  the  later  Greek  physicists  was 
Heron  of  Alexandria  (qv),  formerly  supposed 
to  have  lived  about  100  B  r  ,  but  now  assigned 
to  the  first  century  A.D  His  contribution  to 
geometry  was  the  formula  for  the  area  of  a 
triangle  in  terms  of  its  sides  a,  6,  and  r,  with  s 
standing  for  the  semi  pen  meter  ^  (a_  -f  b  -f  c) 

The    formula    is    V«(«  —  a)    (x  ~~  b)     (*  —  0 
Probably    nearly    contemporary    with    Heron 
was    Menelaus    of    Alexandria,    who    wrote    a 
spherical  trigonometry      He  gave  an  interest- 
ing proposition  relating  to  plane  and  spherical 
triangles,  their  sides  being  cut  by  a  transversal 
For  the  plane  triangle  ABC,  the  sides  a,  /;, 
and  c  being  cut  respectively  in   X,    Y,  and  Z, 
the  theorem  asserts  substantially  that 


AZ    BX 

BZ  ex 


CY 
A  Y 


1. 


The  most  popular  writer  on  astronomy 
among  the  Greeks  was  Ptolemy  (Claudius 
Ptolemseus,  q  v  ,  87-165  AD),  who  lived  at 
\lexandria  He  wrote  a  work  entitled  Megale 
Ri/ntaxis  (The  Great  Collection),  which  his  fol- 
lowers designated  as  Megixtox  (greatest),  on 
which  account  the  Arab  translators  gave  it  the 
name  Almagest  (al  meaning  "  the  ")  He  ad- 
\anced  the  science  of  trigonometry,  but  did 
not  contribute  to  geometry  At  the  close  of 
the  third  century  Pappus  of  Alexandria  (q  v  ) 
wrote  on  geometry  Only  two  other  Greek 
writers  need  be  mentioned  Theon  of  Alexan- 
dria (370  \  D  ,  qv),  the  father  of  the  Hypatia 
(qv  )  who  is  the  heroine  of  Charles  Kingsley's 
well-known  novel,  wrote  a  commentary  on 
Euclid  to  which  we  are  indebted  for  some  his- 
torical information  Proclus  (412-485  \  D  , 
q  v  )  also  wrote  a  commentary  on  Euclid,  and 
much  of  our  infoimation  concerning  the  first 
Book  of  Euclid  is  due  to  him 

The  East  did  little  for  geometry,  although 
contributing  considerably  to  algebra  The 
first  great  Hindu  writer  was  Aryabhatta  (q  v  ), 
who  was  born  in  476  A  D  He,  or  a  later  name- 
sake of  his,  gave  the  very  close  approximation 
for  TT,  expressed  in  modern  notation  as  3  1416 
He  also  gave  rules  for  finding  the  volume  of 
the  pyramid  and  sphere,  but  they  were  incor- 
rect, showing  that  the  Greek  mathematics  had 
not  yet  reached  the  Ganges  Another  Hindu 
writer,  Brahmagupta  (born  in  598  AD,  qv), 
wrote  an  encyclopedia  of  mathematics  He 
gave  a  rule  for  finding  Pythagorean  numbers, 
expressed  in  modern  symbols  as  follows.  — 


He  also  generalized  Heron's  formula  by  assert- 
ing that  the  area  of  an  inscribed  quadrilateral 
of  sides  a,  b,  c,  d,  and  semiperimetcr  ,v,  is 

~~~~~    "" 


The  Arabs  did  much  for  mathematics,  trans- 
lating the  Greek  authors  into  their  language  and 
also  bringing  learning  from  India  Indeed,  it  is 
to  them  that  modern  Europe  owed  its  first  knowl- 
edge of  Euclid  They  contributed  nothing  of 
importance  to  elementary  geometry,  however 
The  greatest  of  the  Arab  writers  was  Moham- 
med ibn  Musa  al-Khowarazmi  (820  A  D  .  qv.), 
who  lived  at  Bagdad  and  Damascus  Although 
chiefly  interested  in  astronomy,  he  wrote  the 
first  book  bearing  the  name  algebra  (Al-gebr 
w'al-muqabala,  Restoration  and  Equation), 
composed  an  arithmetic  using  the  Hindu 
numerals,  and  paid  much  attention  to  geometry 
and  trigonometry 

Euclid  was  translated  from  the  Arabic  into 
Latin  in  the  twelfth  century,  Greek  manu- 
scripts not  being  then  at  hand,  or  being  neg- 
lected because  of  ignorance  of  the  language 
The  leading  translators  were  Adelhard  of  Bath 
(1120,  qv),  an  English  monk,  Gherardo  of 
Cremona  (1160),  an  Italian  monk;  and  Johannes 
Carnpanus  (1250),  chaplain  to  Pope  Urban  IV 
The  greatest  European  mathematician  of 
the  Middle  Ages  was  Leonardo  of  Pisa  (See 
FIBONACCI,  LEONARDO  )  He  was  very  in- 
fluential in  making  the  Hindu-Arabic  numerals 
known  in  Europe  He  wrote  extensively  on 
algebra,  and  was  the  author  of  one  book  on 
geometry,  but  he  contributed  nothing  to  the 
elementary  theory  The  first  edition  of  Euclid 
was  printed  in  Latin  in  1482,  the  first  one  in 
English  appearing  in  1570 

There  has  of  late  arisen  a  modern  elementary 
geometry  devoted  chiefly  to  special  points  and 
lines  relating  to  the  triangle  and  the  circle, 
and  many  interesting  propositions  have  been 
discovered  The  subject  is  so  extensive  that  it 
cannot  find  any  place  in  our  crowded  curricu- 
lum, and  must  necessarily  be  left  to  the  special- 
ist Some  idea  of  the  nature  of  the  work 
may  be  obtained  from  a  mention  of  a  few  prop- 
ositions 

The  bisectors  of  the  various  interior  and  exter- 
ior angles  of  a  triangle  are  concurrent  by  threes  in 
the  mcenter  or  in  one  of  the  three  excenters  of  the 
triangle 

The  common  chord  of  two  intersecting  circles  is 
a  special  case  of  their  radical  axis,  and  tangents 
to  the  circles  from  any  point  on  the  radical  axis 
are  equal 

If  0  is  the  orthoceriter  of  the  triangle  ABC, 
and  X,  7,  Z  are  the  feet  of  the  perpendiculars 
from  A,B,  C  respectively,  and  P,  Q,  R  are  the 
mid-points  of  a,  /;,  r  respectively,  and  L,  M,  N 
are  the  mid-points  of  OA,  OB,  OC  respectively, 
then  the  points  L,  M,  N  -  P,  Q,  R,  -  X,  Y,  Z, 
all  lie  on  a  circle,  the  "  nine  points  circle  " 

Reasons  for  Studying  Geometry  —  It  has 
always  been  held  that  geometry  is  studied 
because  of  a  peculiar  training  and  pleas- 
ure that  this  science  gives,  and  that  other 
sciences  do  not  give,  at  least  in  the  same  degree 
With  the  investigations  of  modern  psychologists 
there  has  come  a  doubt  as  to  the  value  of  the 


VOL  in 


49 


GEOMETRY 


GEOMETRY 


ti aiiiing  that  it  gives,  and  this  has  led  many 
emotional  followers  of  new  doctrines  to  pro- 
claim that  geometry  has  no  such  claim  upon 
the  pupil's  time  as  the  advocates  of  this  value 
assert.  Modern  educators  do  not  claim,  how- 
ever, that  geometry  has  no  value  per  *e,  but 
rather  that  the  methods  of  presenting  the  sub- 
ject that  have  obtained  in  the  past  can  be 
improved,  and  that  certain  of  the  values  for- 
mally claimed  for  it  do  not  exist.  To  this  the 
more  thoughtful  teachers  of  the  subject  have 
long  since  assented  For  example,  it  was  poor 
policy  to  memorize  all  of  geometry,  for  this 
plan  took  away  the  pleasure  of  the  study,  and 
it  did  not  give  the  pupil  any  power  that  he 
could  carry  over  into  other  lines  of  work,  save 
as  he  acquired  facts  which  he  could  have 
obtained  as  well  without  the  labor  of  memoriz- 
ing the  proofs  of  Euclid. 

The  advocates  of  a  substantial  geometry, 
as  opposed  to  the  mere  acquisition  of  a  few 
rules  of  mensuration,  claim  that  the  study  of 
geometry  brings  great  pleasure  and  an  inspir- 
ing mental  uplift,  when  the  subject  is  properly 
presented  They  place  it  in  this  respect  upon 
a  plane  similar  to  that  upon  which  the  study  of 
literature  and  music  rests.  They  further  claim 
that  through  geometry  a  student  acquires 
a  knowledge  of  space  relations  that  he  does  not 
acquire  from  other  subjects,  which  knowledge 
he  carries  over  into  the  study  of  the  graphic 
and  plastic  arts,  of  geography  arid  astronomy, 
and  of  the  science  of  mechanics  They  also 
assert  that  geometry  is  the  onlv  subject  in 
the  secondary  curriculum  that  gives  a  specific 
training  in  deductive  logic,  and  that  this  train- 
ing gives  a  habit  of  thought  that  is  carried 
over  into  other  lines  of  mental  activity  And 
finally  they  claim  that  habits  of  persistence, 
of  using  only  the  necessary  steps  in  an  argu- 
ment, of  holding  to  that  which  is  true,  of  seek- 
ing for  exact  truth,  and  of  arranging  work  in 
logical  order,  are  instilled  by  the  study  of  geom- 
etry, and  that  these  habits  are  unconsciously 
transferred  to  other  fields  of  work  In  other 
words,  they  claim  that  the  pleasure  and  the 
profit  of  approach  to  exact  truth  give  a  power 
that  makes  the  pupil  stronger  in  his  other  activ- 
ities. This  claim  is  sanctioned  by  the  opinions 
of  most  people  who  have  studied  geometry 
under  a  worthy  teacher,  and  no  investigations 
thus  far  made  have  shaken  it.  The  statement 
that  geometry  has  no  value  as  a  mental  discipline 
is  usually  found  to  mean  that  there  is  no  such 
thing  as  mental  discipline  as  defined  by  the 
antagonist,  to  which  most  people  would  heartily 
agree 

Development  of  the  Teaching  of  Geometry. 
—  Little  is  known  of  the  teaching  of  geometry 
in  very  ancient  times,  but  its  nature  can  be 
inferred  from  the  teaching  that  is  still  seen  in 
the  native  schools  of  the  East  Here  a  man, 
learned  in  any  science,  will  have  a  group  of 
voluntary  students  sitting  about  him,  and  to 
them  he  will  expound  the  truth  Such  schools 


50 


may  still  be  seen  in  India,  Persia,  and  China, 
the  master  sitting  on  a  mat  placed  on  the 
ground  or  on  the  floor  of  a  veranda,  and  the 
pupils  reading  aloud  or  listening  to  his  words 
of  exposition 

In  Greece  it  was  taught  in  the  schools  of 
philosophy,  often  as  a  general  preparation  for 
philosophic  study  Thus  Thales  introduced 
it  into  his  Ionian  school,  Pythagoras  made  it 
very  prominent  in  his  great  school  at  Crotona 
in  southern  Italy  (Magna  Grsecia),  and  Plato 
placed  above  the  door  of  his  Acadeima  the  words, 
"  Let  no  one  ignorant  of  geometry  enter  here  " 
—  a  kind  of  entrance  examination  for  his 
school  of  philosophy.  In  these  gatherings  of 
students  it  is  probable  that  geometry  was 
taught  in  much  the  same  way  as  that  already 
mentioned  for  the  schools  of  the  East,  a  small 
group  of  students  being  instructed  by  a  master. 
But  with  these  crude  materials  there  went  an 
abundance  of  time,  so  that  a  number  of  great 
results  were  accomplished  in  spite  of  the  diffi- 
culties attending  the  study  of  the  subject.  It 
is  said  that  Hippocrates  of  Chios  (c  440  B  r  ) 
wrote  the  first  elementary  textbook  on  mathe- 
matics and  invented  the  method  of  geometric 
reduction,  the  replacing  of  a  proposition  to  be 
proved  by  another,  which,  when  proved,  allows 
the  first  one  to  be  demonstrated  A  little 
later  Eudoxus  of  Cmdus  (r  375  B  c  ),  a  pupil 
of  Plato's,  used  the  red  net  10  ad  absurd unt, 
and  Plato  is  said  to  have  invented  the  method 
of  proof  by  analysis,  an  elaboration  of  the  plan 
used  by  Hippocrates  Thus  these  early  phi- 
losophers taught  their  pupils,  not  facts  alone, 
but  methods  of  proof,  giving  them  power  as 
well  as  knowledge.  Furthermore,  they  taught 
them  how  to  discuss  their  problems,  investigat- 
ing the  conditions  under  which  they  are  capable 
of  solution  This  feature  of  the  work  they 
called  the  dwrismus,  and  it  seems  to  have 
started  with  Leon,  a  follower  of  Plato  Be- 
tween the  tune  of  Plato  (c  400  B  c  )  and  Euclid 
(c  300  B  c  )  several  attempts  were  made  to 
arrange  the  accumulated  material  of  elementary 
geometry  in  a  textbook  Plato  had  laid  the 
foundations  for  the  science,  in  the  form  of 
axioms,  postulates,  and  definitions,  and  he  had 
limited  the  instruments  to  the  straightedge 
and  the  compasses  Aristotle  (c  350  B  c  ) 
had  paid  special  attention  to  the  history  of  the 
subject,  thus  finding  out  what  had  'already 
been  accomplished,  and  had  also  made  much 
of  the  applications  of  geometry 

Of  the  other  Greek  teachers  there  is  but  little 
information  as  to  methods  of  imparting  in- 
struction It  is  not  until  the  Middle  ^gea 
that  much  is  known  in  this  line  Whatever 
of  geometry  was  taught  seems  to  have  been 
imparted  by  word  of  mouth  in  the  way  of 
expounding  Euclid,  and  this  was  done  in  the 
ancient  fashion.  The  early  Church  leaders 
usually  paid  no  attention  to  geometry,  but  as 
time  progressed  the  quadrwium,  or  four  sciences 
of  arithmetic,  music,  geometry,  and  astronomy, 


GEOMETRY 


GEOMETRY 


came  to  rank  with  the  tnvium  (grammar, 
rhetoric,  dialectics),  the  two  making  up  the 
seven  liberal  arts  (q.v.).  All  that  there  was 
of  geometry  in  the  first  thousand  years  of 
Christianity,  however,  at  least  in  the  great 
majority  of  Church  schools,  was  summed  up 
m  a  few  definitions  and  rules  of  mensuration. 
Gerbert  (qv.),  who  became  Pope  Sylvester  II 
in  999  A  D  ,  gave  a  new  impetus  to  geometry 
by  discovering  a  manuscript  of  the  old  Roman 
surveyors  and  a  copy  of  the  geometry  of 
Boethius  (q.v  )  who  paraphrased  Euclid  about 
500  A. p.  He  thereupon  wrote  a  brief  geometry, 
and  his  elevation  to  the  papal  chair  tended  to 
bring  the  study  of  mathematics  again  into 
prominence 

Geometry  now  began  to  have  some  place 
m  the  Church  schools,  naturally  the  only 
schools  of  high  rank  in  the  Middle  Ages  The 
study  of  the  subject,  however,  seems  to  have 
been  merely  a  matter  of  memorizing  Geom- 
etry received  another  impetus  in  the  book 
written  by  Leonardo  of  Pisa  (see  FIBONACCI, 
LEONARDO)  in  1220,  the  Practica  Geometries 
Euclid  was  also  translated  into  Latin  about 
this  time  (strangely  enough,  as  already  stated, 
from  the  Arabic  instead  of  the  Greek),  and 
thus  the  treasury  of  elementary  geometry  was 
opened  to  scholars  in  Europe  From  now  on, 
until  the  invention  of  printing  (c  1450), 
numerous  writers  on  geometry  appear,  but 
so  far  as  is  known  the  method  of  instruction 
remained  much  as  it  had  always  been  The 
universities  began  to  appear  about  the  thir- 
teenth century,  and  Sacrobosco  (qv),  a  well- 
known  medieval  mathematician,  taught  mathe- 
matics about  1250  in  the  University  of  Paris 
In  1336  this  university  decreed  that  mathe- 
matics should  be  required  for  a  degree  In 
the  thirteenth  century  Oxford  required  six 
books  of  Euclid  for  one  who  was  to  teach, 
but  this  amount  of  work  seems  to  have  been 
merely  nominal,  for  in  1450  only  two  books 
were  actually  read  The  universities  of  Prague 
(founded  in  1350)  and  Vienna  (Statute*  of  1389) 
required  most  of  plane  geometry  for  the 
teacher's  license,  although  Vienna  demanded 
but  one  book  for  the  bachelor's  degree  So, 
in  general,  the  universities  of  the  thirteenth, 
fourteenth,  and  fifteenth  centuries  required 
less  for  the  degree  of  master  of  arts  than  is  now 
required  from  a  pupil  in  American  high  schools 
On  the  other  hand,  the  university  students 
were  younger  than  now,  and  were  really  doing 
only  high  school  work 

The  invention  of  printing  made  possible  the 
study  of  geometry  in  a  new  fashion  Jt  now 
became  possible  for  any  one  to  study  from  a 
book,  whereas  before  this  time  instruction  was 
chiefly  by  word  of  mouth,  consisting  of  an  ex- 
planation of  Euclid  The  first  Euclid  was 
printed  in  1482,  at  Venice,  and  new  editions 
and  variations  of  this  text  came  out  frequently 
in  the  next  century.  Practical  geometries  be- 
came very  popular,  and  the  reaction  against 


the  idea  of  mental  discipline  threatened  to 
abolish  the  old  style  of  text  Such  writers  as 
Finseus  (1556),  Bartoh  (1589),  Belli  (1569), 
and  Cataneo  (1567),  m  the  sixteenth  century, 
and  Capra  (1673),  Gargiolli  (1655),  and  many 
others  in  the  seventeenth  century,  either 
directly  or  mferentially  took  this  attitude 
towards  the  subject 

The  study  of  geometry  in  the  secondary 
schools  is  relatively  recent  The  Gymnasium 
at  Nuremberg,  founded  in  1526,  and  the  Cathe- 
dral school  at  Wurttemberg  (as  shown  by  the 
curriculum  of  1556),  seem  to  have  had  no 
geometry  before  1600,  although  the  Gvmnasium 
at  Strassburg  included  some  of  this  branch 
of  mathematics  in  1578,  and  an  elective  course 
m  geometry  was  offered  at  Zwickau,  in  Saxony, 
in  1521.  In  the  seventeenth  century  geometry 
is  found  m  a  considerable  number  of  secondary 
schools,  as  at  Coburg  (1605),  Kurpfalz  (1615, 
elective),  Erfurt  (1643),  Gotha  (1605),  Giessen 
(1605),  and  numerous  other  places  in  Germany, 
although  it  appeared  but  rarely  in  the  secondary 
schools  of  France  before  the  eighteenth  century, 
In  Germany  the  Reahchulen  came  into  being 
in  the  eighteenth  century,  and  considerable 
effort  was  made  to  construct  a  course  in  geom- 
etry that  should  be  more  practical  than  tha> 
of  the  modified  Euclid  At  the  opening  of  t!  « 
nineteenth  centurv  the  Prussian  schools  we*^ 
reorganized,  and  from  that  time  011  geometry 
has  had  a  firm  position  in  the  secondary  schools 
of  all  Germany  In  the  eighteenth  eentu*;, 
some  excellent  textbooks  on  geometrv  appeared 
in  France,  among  the  best  being  that  of  Le- 
gendre  (1794),  which  influenced  in  such  a 
marked  degree  the  geometries  of  Amenca 
Soon  after  the  opening  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury the  lycees  of  France  became  strong  in- 
stitutions, and  geometry,  chiefly  based  on 
Legendre,  was  well  taught  in  the  mathemat- 
ical divisions  A  worthy  rival  of  Legendre V 
geometry  was  the  work  of  Lacroix,  who  called 
attention  continually  to  the  analogy  between 
the  theorems  of  plane  and  solid  geometry,  and 
even  went  so  far  as  to  suggest  treating  the 
related  propositions  together  in  certain  cases  , 

In  England  the  secondarv  schools,  such  as 
Rugby,  Harrow,  and  Eton,  did  not  commonly 
teach  geometry  until  quite  recently,  leaving  this 
work  for  the  universities  In  Christ's  Hospital, 
London,  however,  geometry  was  taught  as  early 
as  1681,  from  a  work  written  by  several  teachers 
of  prominence  The  highest  class  at  Harrow 
studied  "  Euclid  and  vulgar  fractions  "  one 
period  a  week  m  1829,  but  geometrv  was  not 
seriously  studied  before  1837  In  the  Edinburgh 
Academy  as  early  as  1835,  and  in  Rugby  by 
1839,  plane  geometry  was  completed 

Not  until  1844  did  Harvard  require  any 
plane  geometry  for  entrance  In  1855  Yale 
required  only  two  books  of  Euclid  It  was 
therefore  from  1850  to  1875  that  plane  geom- 
etry took  its  definite  place  in  the  American 
secondary  school 


51 


GEOMETRY 


GEOMETRY 


Present  Status  of  the  Teaching  of  Geom- 
etry —  Plane  geometry  is  now  commonly 
taught  in  the  United  States  in  the  tenth 
school  year,  the  second  year  of  a  four-year 
high  school  This  is  usually  followed  by  a 
half  year  of  solid  geometry,  frequently  elec- 
tive. It  is  not  the  universal  custom  to  finish 
all  of  plane  geometry  in  a  single  year,  although 
this  is  done  in  many  of  the  best  schools,  and  it 
probably  represents  the  future  curriculum  as 
to  the  amount  of  time  to  be  allowed  to  the  sub- 
ject There  is  at  present  a  tendency  to  reduce 
the  number  of  basal  propositions  and  to  in- 
crease the  number  of  exercises,  so  as  to  give 
a  student  more  opportunity  for  independent 
work  The  Eastern  colleges  do  not  require 
solid  geometry  for  entrance  to  the  arts  course, 
while  the  Western  ones  frequently  do  require  it 
This  means  that  more  work  is  covered  in  plane 
geometry  in  the  secondary  schools  of  the  Eastern 
states,  the  amount  of  time  spent  on  the  entire 
subject  of  geometry  being  about  the  same 
From  every  standpoint  it  would  be  better  that 
a  pupil  should  sacrifice  some  of  plane  geometry 
for  the  purpose  of  having  an  introduction  to 
solid  geometry,  if  he  could  acquire  the  latter 
only  in  this  manner. 

Certain  attempts  have  been  made  to  teach 
algebra  and  geometry  simultaneously,  or  even 
to  fuse  them  into  a  single  subject  This  has 
usually  met  with  only  sporadrc  success  That 
the  foreign  schools  have  usually  run  geometry 
over  several  years,  as  opposed  to  the  American 
plan,  is  liable  to  be  misunderstood  Where 
serious  demonstrative  geometry  has  been  begun 
early  and  extended  over  several  years,  the 
results  have  not  been  satisfactory  Usually 
the  early  geometry  has  been  mere  mensuration, 
a  subject  that  is  taught  in  the  American  arith- 
metic, and  that  is  coming  to  be  very  satis- 
factorily taught  It  may  therefore  be  said  that 
in  America  geometry  extends  over  several  years, 
culminating  in  a  year  or  a  year  and  a  half  of 
serious  demonstrative  work  As  to  the  fusing 
of  the  two  subjects  of  algebra  and  geometry 
in  one,  this  seems  destined  to  meet  with  success 
only  m  schools  in  which  nothing  but  a  little 
practical  geometry  is  studied 

The  question  of  the  nature  of  the  textbook 
is  one  that  is  periodically  agitated  Several 
types  have  been  suggested:  (1)  A  book  with 
the  basal  proofs  substantially  in  full,  to  serve 
as  models,  and  a  large  number  of  well-graded 
exercises  for  original  work;  (2)  a  syllabus 
of  basal  propositions;  (3)  a  book  of  suggested 
proofs,  heuristic  in  nature  Of  these  the  first 
has  been  the  one  almost  universally  used,  the 
objections  to  it  having  little  force  with  a  good 
teacher,  and  the  other  forms  being  useless  with 
a  poor  teacher 

Reforms  and  Improvements.  —  Numerous 
reforms  and  improvements  are  being  suggested 
for  the  treatment  of  geometry  at  the  present 
time,  and  a  few  of  these  will  be  mentioned. 
(1)  That  geometry  and  algebra  be  fused  into 


a  single  subject,  an  effort  that  takes  no  ac- 
count of  the  fact  that  the  two  subjects  are 
distinct  in  purpose,  in  results,  and  in  diffi- 
culty, and  that  each  has  a  peculiar  interest 
that  is  lost  when  it  sacrifices  its  individuality 
(2)  That  the  two  subjects  be  taught  simultane- 
ously, two  days  of  one  and  three  of  the  other 
during  each  school  week  This  has  often  been 
tried  in  the  United  States,  but  in  the  main  with 
unsatisfactory  results  Psychologically  the 
argument  is  that  the  pupil  is  not  mature  enough 
for  this  plan,  his  interest  being  better  main- 
tained by  concentrating  his  energy  on  either 
the  one  or  the  other  The  argument  that  he 
would  see  the  relation  of  one  science  to  the  other 
better  by  the  simultaneous  than  the  tandem 
arrangement  is  offset  by  the  custom  of  the  best 
teachers  to  bring  into  algebra  as  much  of  the 
mensuration  learned  in  arithmetic  as  possible, 
and  to  introduce  into  geometry  as  many  appli- 
cations of  algebra  as  seem  adapted  to  this  pur- 
pose (3)  That  geometry  be  converted  into 
an  applied  science,  joining  the  general  industrial 
movement  of  the  present  This  would  mean 
that  geometry  would  cease  to  exist,  since  the 
applications  of  the  subject  are  merely  the  rules 
of  mensuration  learned  in  arithmetic,  and 
learned  bv  a  natural  form  of  induction  If 
geometry  were  abolished  it  would  be  possible 
to  introduce  other  lines  of  mathematics,  such 
as  trigonometry  (which  requires  only  very 
little  geometry),  calculus  (which  requires  prac- 
tically no  geometry  beyond  elementary  men- 
suration for  a  large  number  of  its  applications), 
and  some  little  work  in  the  practical  pioblems 
of  vector  analysis  Foi  the  great  majority 
of  students  this  seems  unwise,  since  they  have 
little  interest  in  these  applications,  but  in 
certain  forms  of  technical  high  schools  such  an 
arrangement  may  prove  necessary  (4)  That 
algebra  be  taught  for  a  half  vear,  followed  by 
geometry  for  the  same  length  of  time,  and  tins 
by  another  half  year  of  algebra,  followed  again 
by  a  half  year  of  geometry  This  plan  has 
certain  advantages  over  the  year  arrangement, 
but  as  yet  it  has  to  justify  itself,  the  general 
feeling  being  that  the  pupil  would  lose  more 
in  immediate  interest  in  a  topic  than  he  would 
gain  in  sustained  interest  in  mathematics  as 
a  whole 

While  these  suggestions  for  reform  are  open 
to  question,  other  reforms  are  meeting  with 
general  acceptance  and  are  improving  the  cur- 
rent teaching  of  geometry  (1)  It  is  universally 
agreed  that  Euclid  is  undesirable  as  a  text- 
book for  beginners,  and,  even  in  England 
where  it  has  so  long  been  the  standard,  it  is 
now  superseded  by  books  more  suited  to  the 
youthful  mind.  (2)  The  propositions  of  the 
textbook  are  coming  to  be  considered  more  in 
the  light  of  basal  truths,  and  the  proofs  as 
models,  and  the  serious  work  of  the  pupils  is 
coming  to  be  more  and  more  in  the  realm  of 
exercises  (3)  The  exercises  are  coming  to 
be  more  carefully  grouped  and  graded. 


52 


GEOMETRY,   ANALYTIC 


GEORGE  JUNIOR  REPUBLIC 


(4)  Such  legitimate  applications  as  can  be  found, 
and  as  give  interest  to  the  study  of  geometry, 
are      being     sought      for      and     introduced 

(5)  More  attention  is  being  given  to  geometric 
design,  so  long  as  this  does  not  detract  from 
the  scientific  work.     (6)  In  brief,  serious  effort 
is  being  made  to  make  geometry  more  interest- 
ing and  useful,  and  to  recognize  its  game  ele- 
ment and  its  utility,  without  destroying  the 
values  that  have  long  made  it  a  recognized 
standard  subject  in  the  curriculum 

D  E  S 
References :  — 

On  the  History  of  Geometry  consult    — 

ALLMAN,  G    J      Greek  Geometry  from  Thales  to  Euclid 
(London,  1889) 

BALL,   W    W     H      History  of  Mathematics      (London, 
1908 ) 

CAJORI,     F      History     of    Mathematics      (Now     York, 

1890) 

History    of    Elementary    Mathematics      (New    York, 
1897) 

CANTOR,     M      Gexchichtr    der    Mathematik       (Leipzig, 
various  editions,  1880  1()08  ) 

FINK,  K      History  of  Mathematics      (Chicago,  1903  ) 

Fit \NKLAND,    W     S       The   Firs/   Boole   of  Euclid's   Ele- 
ments     (Ciimbridgo,  1901  ) 
Theories  of  Parallelism       (Cambridge,  1909  ) 

Gow,  J       History  of  Greek  Mathematics       (Cambridge, 
1884) 

HEATH,    T     L      The    Thirteen   Books   of  Euclid'*   Ele- 
ments     (Cambridge,  1908) 

Other  standard  works  on  the  history  of  mathematics 

On  the  Teaching  of  Geometry  consult    — 

HUANKORD,    B      A    Study   of  Mathematical   Education 

(Oxford,  1908  ) 

SMITH,  D    E       Teaching  of  Geometry      (Boston,   1911  ) 
Teaching   of  Elemental y   Mathematics       (New    York, 

1900) 
YOUNG,  J  W  A  The  Teaching  of  Mathematics 

(New  York,  1907) 

On  the  Foundations  of  Geometry  consult    — 

CAKUH,     P      Foundations    of    Mathematics      (Chicago, 

1908) 
HILBERT,  D  Foundations  of  Geometry  (Chicago, 

1902  ) 
RUHSELL,  B  Foundations  of  Geometry  (Cambridge, 

1906) 

GEOMETRY,    ANALYTIC.   —   See     ANA- 
LYTIC GEOMETRY 


GEORGE  III 


See  LANCASTER,  JOSEPH 


GEORGE  JUNIOR  REPUBLIC,  FREE- 
VILLE,  N.Y  —  An  organization  of  boys  and 
girls  modeled  on  the  government  of  the  United 
States  It  arose  out  of  the  summer  camps 
first  begun  in  1890  by  Mr  William  R  George, 
who  had  for  several  years  studied  the  "  boy 
problem  "  among  the  New  York  street  urchins 
One  experience  after  another  with  the  worst 
type  of  city  boys  who  regarded  charity  as  their 
right,  who  had  no  moral  sense,  whose  chief 
aim  was  to  secure  something  for  nothing,  led 
Mr.  George  from  one  system  of  control  to  an- 
other, until  he  recognized  that  boys,  and  girls 
too,  must  own  something  which  they  valued, 
that  the  basis  of  government  is  property,  that 
there  should  be  nothing  without  labor,  and  that 


his  small  community  must  learn  to  govern 
itself.  The  permanent  Republic  was  launched 
in  the  summer  of  1895,  five  boys  remaining 
with  Mr  George  after  summer  camp  This 
number  gradually  rose  until  now  the  village 
numbers  about  150  citizens  In  1896  the 
George  Junior  Republic  Association  was  in- 
corporated and  a  farm  was  purchased  The 
government  was  placed  in  the  hands  of  the 
community,  a  president,  vice-president,  judge, 
chief  of  police,  secretary  of  state,  and  secretary 
of  the  treasury,  and  a  legislature  were  elected, 
important  practical  questions  arose  and  were 
settled,  such  as  the  question  of  currency, 
woman's  suffrage,  and  trusts  When  it  was 
found  that  the  members  of  the  legislature  were 
not  always  disinterested,  a  monthly  town 
meeting  was  substituted  In  all  other  respects 
the  village  is  a  copy  in  miniature  of  the  outside 
world  with  its  trade,  commerce,  and  industries. 
The  citizens  are  drawn  from  all  classes;  boys 
and  girls  committed  by  sentence  of  a  court, 
wayward  juveniles  sent  by  their  parents,  boys 
and  girls  who  come  voluntarily  to  the  Re- 
public to  find  there  a  start  which  is  so  difficult 
for  them  outside  But  there  are  no  distinctions 
of  class,  all  must  work  to  support  themselves 
or  bo  maintained  in  the  workhouse  or  jail, 
whore  they  aro  compelled  to  labor  The  chief 
industries  of  the  Republic  are  farming,  car- 
pentry, plumbing,  printing,  baking,  road- 
mending  and  building,  laundry  and  domestic 
work  for  the  girls  The  community  is  housed 
in  ton  cottages  arid  hotels,  and  is  provided  with 
board  and  lodging  according  to  their  means 
There  is  a  special  currency  and  a  bank,  the 
savings  may  be  redeemed  in  United  States 
currency  on  leaving  the  village  A  school  is 
maintained  which  provides  instruction  up  to 
college  entrance  requirements  There  is  a 
chapel  in  which  each  denomination  has  its  own 
service  An  interesting  feature  of  the  Republic 
is  the  court  in  which  offenders  are  tried  by  a 
jury  of  then  peers,  the  judge  is  an  elected 
officer  Law-breakers  may  be  fined  or  im- 
prisoned in  the  jail  which  adjoins  the  court 
Mr  George  attributes  the  success  of  the  ex- 
periment to  the  absence  of  an  adult-manu- 
factured system  Those  characteristics  which 
mark  boy  and  girl  life  generally  are  seized  upon 
as  the  foundation  There  is  no  adult  inter- 
ference with  the  exception  that  the  larger  in- 
dustrial undertakings  are  m  the  charge  of  adult 
and  experienced  helpers,  while  the  spirit  of 
home  life  is  introduced  into  the  cottages  by  the 
presence  of  adult  proprietors  The  institution 
is  maintained  through  payment  for  board  by 
parents,  guardians,  societies,  or  county  officials, 
annual  contributions,  a  small  endowment, 
payment  towards  teachers'  salaries  from  the 
State  Education  Department,  and  income  from 
sales  of  products  made  by  the  citizens  The 
success  of  the  institution  is  evidenced  by  the 
fact  that  of  those  who  have  been  through  the 
Republic  only  about  two  per  cent  have  turned 


GEORGE  WASHINGTON  UNIVERSITY 


GEORGIA 


out  to  be  failures,  while  the  rest  are  to  be  found 
in  all  walks  of  life,  a  few  having  proceeded  to 
Cornell,  Harvard,  Columbia,  and  other  colleges. 
In  1908  the  National  Association  of  Junior 
Republics  was  formed  to  encourage  the  estab- 
lishment of  republics  in  other  parts  of  the 
country  The  Carter  Republic  at  Redmgton, 
Pa  ,  and  the  National  Republic  at  Annapolis 
Junction,  Md  ,  may  be  mentioned  as  carrying 
out  work  on  the  same  principle  as  the  George 
Junior  Republic 

References :  — 
ABBOTT,    L      A    Republic   in   thp   Republic      Outlook, 

Vol   LXXXVIII,  1908,  pp   350-354 
American  Journal  of  Sociology,  Vol    IV,  pp    281,  433, 

703 

BARRAN,  R    C      Thr  George  Junior  Republic      Nine- 
teenth Century,  Vol   LXV,  1909,  pp  502-508 
GEORGE,   WILLIAM  R      The  Junior  Republic,  its  His- 
tory and  Ideals      (New  York,  1910  ) 

GEORGE  WASHINGTON  UNIVERSITY, 
WASHINGTON,  DC—  The  successor  of  the 
Columbian  College  of  the  District  of  Colum- 
bia, an  institution  chartered  by  Congress  on 
Feb.  9,  1821  On  March  3,  1873,  the  name 
was  changed  to  the  Columbian  University  and 
on  Jan.  23,  1904,  to  The  George  Washing- 
ton University.  The  old  Columbian  College 
was  organized  and  controlled  by  the  Baptist 
denomination  In  1898  the  sectarian  control 
was  modified,  the  president  and  two  thirds  of 
the  trustees  remaining  Baptist  In  1904  with 
the  adoption  of  its  present  name  the  institution 
became  nonscctarian  Its  present  board  of 
trustees  is  a  self-perpetuating  body  of  twenty- 
two  members,  divided  into  three  classes,  seven 
trustees  being  elected  each  year  The  uni- 
versity has  a  department  of  arts  and  sciences 
—  consisting  of  the  graduate  school,  the 
College  of  Arts  and  Sciences,  the  College  of  En- 
gineering and  Mechanic  Arts,  the  College  of 
the  Political  Sciences,  and  Teachers  College  — 
and  professional  departments  of  law,  medicine, 
and  dentistry  Also  it  embraces  the  National 
College  of  Pharmacy  and  the  College  of 
Veterinary  Medicine,  institutions  organized 
under  its  charter  as  separate  corporations  with 
independent  financial  foundations  but  educa- 
tionally parts  of  the  university  The  en- 
dowment of  the  university  has  through  past 
administration  been  greatly  impaired,  the  loss 
in  it  being  now  covered  adequately  but  unpro- 
ductively  by  a  deed  of  trust  on  the  medical 
school  and  the  hospital  buildings  The  uni- 
versity is  therefore  to  a  great  extent  dependent 
financially  on  tuition  fees  and  subscriptions 
pledged  by  friends  The  instructing  staff,  1910- 
1911,  numbered  176,  but  m  many  instances 
members  of  it  give  only  part  time  to  the  uni- 
versity. The  students',  1910-1911,  were  1277, 
divided,  including  13  duplicates,  as  follows 
Graduate  School  54,  College  of  Arts  and 
Sciences  281,  College  of  Engineering  and  Me- 
chanic Arts  176,  College  of  the  Political 
Sciences  77,  Teachers  College  93;  Dcpart- 


54 


mcnt  of  Law  343,  Department  of  Medicine  98, 
Department  of  Dentistry  40,  National  College 
of  Pharmacy  63,  College  of  Veterinary  Medi- 
cine 65.  C.  H.  S. 

GEORGETOWN  COLLEGE,  GEORGE- 
TOWN, KY  —  A  coeducational  institution 
established  in  1829  under  the  auspices  of  the 
Kentucky  Baptist  Education  Society  Pre- 
paratory and  collegiate  departments  are  main- 
tained The  entrance  requirements  are  equiv- 
alent to  some  twelve  points  of  high  school  work 
Degrees  of  Bachelor  of  Arts  and  Bachelor  of 
Science  are  conferred  on  completion  of  the  re- 
quirements, which  include  at  least  one  year  of 
work  in  residence  There  is  a  faculty  of  twenty 
members  in  the  college 

GEORGETOWN  UNIVERSITY,  WASH- 
INGTON, DC  —  See  JESUS,  SOCIETY  OF, 
EDUCATIONAL  WORK  OF 

Reference :  — 

SHEA,  J   G      History  of  Georgetown  University      (Wash- 
ington and  New  York,  1891  ) 

GEORGIA,  STATE  OF  —  The  southern- 
most of  the  original  thirteen  states  Rati- 
fied the  Federal  constitution  in  1788.  It  is 
located  in  the  South  Atlantic  Division,  and  hah 
a  land  area  of  58,980  square  miles  In  size,  it  is 
nearly  equal  to  the  six  New  England  States 
For  administrative  purposes  it  is  divided  into 
145  counties,  and  these  arc  in  turn  divided  mtc 
cities  and  school  districts  In  1910  Georgia 
had  a  population  of  2,609,121,  with  a  distribu- 
tion of  44  4  persons  per  .square  mile 

Educational  History  —  In  laying  out  the 
original  towns,  considerable  bodies  of  land  were 
set  aside  by  the  trustees  of  the  colony  for  the 
support  of  church  and  school  Schools  were 
maintained  by  the  trustees  and  charitable 
friends  of  the  colony,  at  Savannah  and  else- 
where In  1754  the  crown  took  over  the  colony 
and  agreed  to  continue  the  "  allowance  here- 
tofore usually  given  by  the  trustees  to  a 
Minister  and  two  school-masters  "  The  agiee 
ment  so  made  waa  kept  until  the  Revolution, 
the  only  case  on  record  where  the  Parliament 
of  England  supported  schools  in  the  colonies 
The  most  notable  educational  activity  in  the 
colony  was  the  orphan  house  founded  in  1739 
by  the  evangelist  George  Whiteficld  (q  v  ),  upon 
which  he  had  expended  by  1764  some  £12,000 
sterling  This  institution  was  in  avowed  imi- 
tation of  Francke's  orphan  house  at  Halle,  and 
in  it  were  taught  such  trades  as  carpentering, 
weaving,  and  tailoring. 

The  Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the 
Gospel  (q.v )  also  gave  some  assistance  to 
schools  in  the  colonial  days 

The  first  educational  interest  of  the  state  as 
such  was  in  a  system  of  county  academies. 
The  constitution  of  1777  provided  that  "  schools 
shall  be  erected  in  each  county,  arid  supported 


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at  the  general  expense  of  the  state  as  the  legis- 
lature shall  hereafter  point  out  "  As  soon  as 
the  Revolution  was  ended,  the  legislature  char- 
tered (1783)  academies  for  three  of  the  counties, 
giving  to  each  a  landed  endowment,  and  granted 
further  "  one  thousand  acres  of  vacant  land  for 
erecting  free  schools  "  in  each  of  the  remaining 
counties.  The  "  free  schools  "  here  contem- 
plated were  of  the  county  academy  type  In 
1792  the  land  endowment  was  changed  to 
£1000  worth  of  confiscated  property;  a  pro- 
vision which  remained  in  force  until  1835. 

The  county  academies  were,  in  1785,  formed 
into  an  administrative  system  under  the  newly 
created  state  university.  In  1784  (Feb  20)  a 
state  "  college  or  seminary  of  learning  "  had 
boon  chartered  and  endowed  with  40,000  acres 
of  land,  being  thus  the  first  chartered  of  Amer- 
ican state  universities  (See  GEORGIA,  UNI- 
VERSITY OF  )  In  1785  this  charter  was  en- 
larged so  as  to  include  "  as  parts  or  members 
of  the  university  all  public  schools  instituted 
or  to  be  supported  by  funds  or  public  moneys  " 
The  Senatus  Academicus  of  the  university  was 
required  to  advise  "  not  only  upon  the  affairs 
of  the  university,  but  also  to  remedy  the  de- 
fects and  advance  the  interests  of  literature 
through  the  state  in  general  "  In  pursuance  of 
this  end  it  should  "  recommend  what  kind  of 
schools  and  academies  shall  be  instituted,  agree- 
ably to  the  constitution,  m  the  several  parts  of 
the  state,  and  prescribe  what-  branches  of  edu- 
cation shall  be  taught  and  inculcated  ";  should 
"  also  examine  and  recommend  the  instructors 
to  be  emploved  in  them,  or  appoint  persons  for 
that  purpose  "  The  president  of  the  univer- 
sity was  required  to  visit  the  schools  regularly 
and  "  examine  into  their  order  and  perform- 
ances "  This  plan,  remarkable  both  for  its 
mrlusiveness  and  for  its  centralization  of  au- 
thority, was  in  these  respects  never  much  more 
than  a  legislative  dream  The  university  did 
not  begin  work  until  1800,  the  county  acad- 
emies were  too  widely  scattered  and  the  frontier 
spirit  of  freedom  too  strong  to  allow  a  central 
body  to  exercise  real  control  By  1820  thirty- 
one  academies  had  been  chartered  In  1821  an 
"  academic  fund  "  of  $250,000  was  set  aside, 
the  income  of  which  should  be  divided  among 
the  counties  The  quota  of  any  county  should 
normally  go  to  the  countv  academy,  but  it 
might  by  special  enactment  be  divided  among 
certain  authorized  academies  in  the  county,  or 
be  given  to  elementary  education  (poor  school 
fund)  The  effect  of  this  "  academic  fund  " 
appears  in  the  fact  that  during  the  next  ten 
years  more  than  three  times  as  many  acad- 
emies were  chartered  (107)  as  in  the  preceding 
forty  years;  while  the  next  decade  (1830- 
1840)  saw  this  number  more  than  doubled 
(256).  The  "  academic  fund "  was  in  1837 
transferred  to  the  "  common  school  fund,"  and 
the  chartering  of  academies  shows  an  immediate 
decline  Some  of  these  academies  from  the 
first  had  "female  departments  ",  and  beginning 


about  1825  a  number  of  distinctly  "  feniaif 
academies  "  were  chartered  In  the  smaller 
places,  however,  coeducation  was  the  rule 
A  curriculum  of  1806,  probably  typical  of  the 
best,  included  "  English,  Latin,  and  Greek, 
writing,  arithmetic,  geography,  astronomy, 
mathematics,  and  Roman  antiquities  "  Later, 
elementary  education  received  increased  atten- 
tion in  the  academies,  which  thus  formed  unti> 
the  Civil  War  the  chief  dependence  of  the  statt 
for  education 

Prior  to  the  Civil  War  free  schooling  was 
for  the  most  part,  confined  to  the  poor  and 
given  to  them  as  a  charity  from  state  and 
county  "  poor  school  funds  "*  In  1817  $250,000 
was  set  aside  by  the  state  "  for  the  future  es- 
tablishment and  support  of  free  schools  through- 
out the  state  "  The  next  year  lots  10  and  100 
of  each  "  surveyor's  district  "  in  about  one  third 
of  the  state  were  reserved  "  for  the  education  of 
poor  children  "  In  1822  the  income  from  these 
funds  was  directed  towards  paying  the  tuition 
of  any  poor  child  in  whatever  school  he  might 
chance  to  be  Special  schools  were  neither 
established  nor  contemplated  The  working  of 
this  plan  was  at  no  time  satisfactory,  and  many 
efforts  were  made  to  improve  it  When  the 
"surplus  revenue "  was  received  from  Congress 
in  1836,  one  third  (about  $350,000)  was  set 
aside  for  school  purposes,  and  a  committee  was 
appointed  to  visit  the  various  sections  of  the 
country  "  particularly  the  New  England 
states  "  and  report  a  plan  of  "  common  schools  " 
As  a  result  there  was  adopted  in  1837  a  thor- 
ough system  of  schools,  free  to  all  white  chil- 
dren and  supported  from  the  income  of  a  "  com- 
mon school  fund  "  (of  nearly  $1,000,000),  this 
to  be  supplemented  bv  a  county  tax  (amend- 
ment of  1838),  if  locally  desired  Whether  the 
scheme  was  too  radical  a  step  or  whether  the 
panic  of  1837  was  too  disastrous,  does  not  now 
appear;  but  m  1840  the  "  common  school  " 
system  gave  place  to  a  renewal  of  the  4<  pool 
school  fund  "  plan  This  was  improved  in 
1843,  1849,  and  m  1852 

Parallel  with  this  gen  end  state  law  were  to 
be  found  various  local  efforts  Savannah  from 
1818  and  Augusta  from  1821  had  "  free  school 
societies  affording  education  to  the  children  of 
indigent  parents  "  These  were  supported  in 
part  by  state  and  county  funds  Glynn  (1823) 
and  Emanuel  (1824)  counties  had  free  schools 
for  needy  children,  Gwmnott  (1826)  "  for  the 
education  of  the  youth  of  the  county  "  Mc- 
Intosh  county  m  1830  had  a  free  moving  school 
The  "  academy  funds  "  were  in  several  instances 
used  m  connection  with  such  free  school  sys- 
tems These  local  efforts  continued  more  or 
less  sporadically  until  the  permanent  establish- 
ment of  a  common  school  system  in  1870 

In  1845  and  again  in  1856  efforts  were  made 
before  the  legislature  to  establish  a  general 
system  of  free  schools;  but  not  before  1858  was 
auy  real  progress  made  In  that  year  there  was 
elected  as  governor  a  man  from  the  plain  people 


55 


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through  whose  influence  the  school  fund  was 
much  enlarged  with  provision  for  its  further 
increase,  and  an  annual  appropriation  of 
$100,000  was  made  "  for  the  education  of  the 
children  of  this  state  "  This  marks  the  dis- 
appearance of  the  word  "  poor  "  from  his  legis- 
lative enactments  By  this  act  each  county 
was  to  adopt  its  own  school  plan;  and  a  county 
tax  was  authorized  The  next  year  county 
boards  of  education  were  provided  to  disburse 
the  funds  and  examine  teachers  As  a  result 
of  these  acts  a  number  of  counties  organized 
common  free  school  systems  The  war  of 
course  stopped  this  development;  but  the 
constitutional  convention  of  1861  added  to  the 
general  educational  provision,  which  has  been 
in  force  since  1798,  a  clause  authorizing  the 
General  Assembly  "  to  provide  for  the  educa- 
tion of  the  people  "  This  clause  was  retained 
in  the  constitution  of  1865  (contrary  to  the 
statement  in  Barnard's  American  Journal) 

Immediately  after  the  war  and  before  the  rad- 
ical Reconstruction  was  begun,  the  legislature 
adopted  (1866)  an  act  establishing  a  "  general 
system  of  Georgia  schools  "  in  which  was  pro- 
vided a  state  "  superintendent  of  public  edu- 
cation," free  schooling  for  all  white  children, 
local  taxation  to  supplement  state  funds,  and 
in  general,  all  the  machinery  for  an  efficient 
public  school  system  The  scheme  was  to  go 
into  effect  in  1868  Before  that  time  Congress 
overturned  the  existing  state  government,  and 
placed  in  power  the  radical  rcconstructiomsts 
In  1868  the  constitutional  convention  (more 
than  half  of  whom  were  Southern  whites) 
adopted  without  division  an  explicit  provision 
for  "  a  thorough  system  of  general  education 
to  be  forever  free  to  all  children  of  the  state  " 
For  the  first  time  in  the  state  schooling  was 
provided  for  the  negro 

In  1869  the  State  Teachers'  Association  was 
formed,  and  this  body  practically  outlined  the 
school  law  of  1870,  which  was  the  first  public 
free-school  law  passed  under  the  now  constitu- 
tion The  new  school  system  did  not  escape 
the  mismanagement  which  characterized  the 
reconstruction  period,  the  school  funds,  were 
diverted  and  spent,  a  large  debt  was  contracted, 
and  as  a  result,  the  schools  were  closed  during 
the  year  1872  In  1872  the  school  law  was 
revised  and  amended,  and  this  law  lias  formed 
the  basis  of  the  present  school  system  for  the 
state.  In  1877  another  new  constitution  was 
adopted,  and,  in  this,  still  more  explicit  in- 
structions were  laid  down  with  reference  to 
education.  New  provisions  with  reference  to 
state  and  county  taxation  for  schools  were 
inserted,  separate  schools  for  the  two  races  were 
required,  the  local  school  systems  in  existence 
were  legalized,  and  an  additional  mandate 
was  laid  upon  the  legislature  to  provide  "  a 
thorough  system  of  common  schools,"  "  as 
nearly  uniform  as  practicable,"  for  the  educa- 
tion of  the  children  of  the  state.  Side  by  side 
with  this  general  school  system,  established  by 

56 


the  law  of  1870,  there  has  grown  up  a  series  ol 
special  school  systems,  regulated  and  controlled 
by  local  laws  Chatham  County  (in  which  is 
Savannah)  was  the  first  to  have  a  separate 
system,  followed  closely  by  the  city  of  Colum- 
bus, both  being  created  in  1866.  In  the  same 
year  as  the  new  school  law,  1870,  Atlanta  was 
created  a  special  school  system,  Richmond  and 
Bibb  Counties  following  in  1872,  Glynn  County 
in  1873  Other  cities  followed,  until  practically 
every  town  of  any  size  has  its  local  system. 
Local  taxation  elsewhere  practically  forbidden, 
was  possible  in  these  local  systems  and  has  been 
the  chief  incentive  to  their  formation  Some 
of  the  best  schools  of  the  South  are  to  be  found 
in  the  counties  and  cities  of  Georgia  operating 
under  local  and  independent  laws 

In  1887  the  school  law  was  revised,  and  a 
number  of  important  changes  made  The 
preparation  of  all  questions  for  teachers'  ex- 
aminations was  placed  with  the  State  School 
Commissioner;  the  election  of  teachers  by 
county  boards  was  changed  so  as  to  give  them 
discretionary  power  m  elections,  instead  of 
being  required  to  elect  those  nominated  by  the 
district  trustees,  the  boards  of  district  trustees 
were  abolished,  and  the  county  was  made  the 
unit  in  admirnstiation  The  state  appropria- 
tions have  been  gradually  increased  until  now 
$2,500,000  is  annually  disbursed  from  the  state 
treasury  In  1891  a  State  Normal  School  was 
established  by  legislative  act,  and  county 
teachers'  institutes  were  created  In  1903  the 
State  Board  of  Education  was  created  a  State 
Textbook  C Commission  as  well,  with  power  to 
adopt  a  uniform  series  of  textbooks  for  the 
schools  of  the  state  In  1904  the  state  con- 
stitution was  amended  so  as  to  make  feasible 
the  levying  of  county  and  district  school  taxes, 
and  this  permission  has  been  made  use  of  by 
many  of  the  counties  and  districts  since  that 
time  In  1906  eleven  agricultural  high  schools 
were  established,  one  in  each  congressional  dis- 
trict, for  instruction  in  agricultural  science 
In  1906  the  school  districts  were  re-created  and 
trustees  appointed,  and,  in  1905,  local  district 
taxation  for  schools  was  established  for  the 
first  time 

In  1910  constitutional  provision  was,  for  the 
first  time,  made  for  the  state  support  of  secondary 
education  The  next  year  0911)  provision  was 
made  for  state  inspectors  of  elementary  schools; 
and  the  state  school  board  was  changed  from  an 
ex  offiao  body  of  statehouse  officers  to  a  body 
appointed  by  the  governor,  while  the  power  of 
the  board  was  much  increased 

Present  School  System.  —  The  school  system 
of  Georgia,  as  at  present  organized,  is  as  fol- 
lows: At  the  head  of  the  system  is  a  State 
Board  of  Education  and  a  State  Superintendent 
of  Schools  The  State  Board  of  Education  is 
a  body  composed  of  the  Governor,  the  State 
Superintendent  of  Schools,  and  four  others  ap- 
pointed by  the  Governor.  The  Governor  is 
president,  and  the  State  Superintendent  of 


GEORGIA 


GEORGIA 


Schools  is  the  chief  executive  officer  of  the 
Board  The  Board  regulates  the  supervision 
of  all  schools  in  the  state,  supervises  all  certifi- 
cation of  teachers  for  all  public  schools,  pro- 
vides the  course  of  study  for  all  common  and 
high  schools  receiving  state  aid,  adopts  uni- 
form textbooks,  and  acts  as  a  court  of  final 
appeal  from  the  decisions  of  the  state  super- 
intendent Counties,  cities,  and  towns  that 
levy  a  local  tax  for  schools  and  maintain  a 
term  of  eight  months  are  exempt  from  the 
provisions  of  the  law  requiring  uniformity  in 
textbooks  The  State  Superintendent  of  Schools 
is  elected  by  the  people  for  two-year  periods 
and  receives  a  salary  of  $3000  a  year  He 
has  "  a  general  superintendence  of  the  business 
relating  to  the  common  schools  of  the  state," 
and  is  "  charged  with  the  administration  of 
the  school  laws  "  He  prepares  blank  report 
forms,  visits  the  different  counties,  and  examines 
into  the  administration  of  the  school  law, 
delivers  popular  addresses  in  the  interests  of 
education,  and  makes  an  annual  report  to  the 
General  Assembly  He  is  also  a  member  of 
the  State  Geological  Board  There  are  three 
state  school  supervisors  appointed  by  the  state 
Superintendent,  who  under  his  direction  hold 
teachers'  institutes,  grade  papers  for  state 
licenses,  and  "  aid  generally  in  supervising, 
systematizing,  and  improving  the  schools  of  the 
state  " 

In  each  county  there  is  a  county  board  of 
education  and  a  county  superintendent  of 
education  The  County  Board,  except  in  the 
four  special  systems  of  Bibb,  Chatham,  Rich- 
mond, and  Glyrin,  consists  of  five  freeholders 
appointed  by  the  grand  jury  of  the  county, 
for  four-year  terms,  and  removable  for  cause 
by  the  county  judge  They  receive  $2  per 
day  for  their  services,  and  are  required  to  lay 
off  their  counties  into  school  districts,  to  estab- 
lish at  least  one  school  for  white  and  one  for 
colored  children  in  each,  to  employ  the  teachers 
for  the  schools,  to  fix  the  time  and  length  of 
the  school  term,  and  to  act  as  a  judicial  tri- 
bunal for  school  affairs  in  the  county  The 
board  may  also  disapprove  of  any  district 
trustee  elected,  and  order  a  new  election 
The  county  superintendent  of  education,  is 
chosen  by  popular  election  from  among  the 
citizens  of  the  county,  for  a  four-year  term, 
and  acts  ex  officio  as  secretary  of  the  board 
He  acts  further  as  a  medium  of  communication 
between  state  and  district  officers;  must  visit 
each  school  m  the  county  at  least  once  every 
sixty  days;  acts  as  the  agent  of  the  county 
board  in  purchasing  furniture  and  supplies; 
makes  an  annual  report  to  the  grand  jury 
and  a  monthly  report  to  the  State  Superin- 
tendent of  Schools;  issues  certificates  to  school 
trustees;  and  examines  teachers  for  licenses 
The  minimum  salary  for  this  office  is  $600  per 
annum,  but  the  county  board  may  make  such 
additional  compensation,  "  as  may  be  m  their 
judgment  proper  and  just  "  County  boards 


may  employ  him  to  take  the  school  census, 
for  which  he  may  be  paid  $2  a  day 

Each  county,  not  under  local  laws,  is  divided 
into  school  districts  of  at  least  sixteen  square 
miles,  though  smaller  districts  may  be  laid  off 
if  conditions  require  it  For  each  district,  three 
trustees  are  elected  for  three-year  terms,  one 
each  year  In  incorporated  towns,  five  trustees 
arc  elected  for  three-year  terms  These 
boards  of  trustees  are  to  supervise  the  school 
operations  in  their  districts,  may  make  recom- 
mendations to  the  county  board  as  to  their 
choice  for  teachers,  and  must  make  an  annual 
report  to  the  county  board  In  districts 
which  vote  a  local  district  tax,  the  boards  of 
trustees  may  make  all  rules  and  regulations 
for  the  government  of  the  schools,  may  build 
and  equip  their  schoolhouses,  subject  to  the 
approval  of  the  county  board,  and  may  fix 
the  salaries  of  their  teachers  Any  city  of 
over  2000  inhabitants  may  organize  an  inde- 
pendent school  system  and  report  direct  to  the 
State  School  Commissioner,  and  any  county 
may  be  so  organized  by  an  act  of  the  General 
Assembly  Such  independent  systems  make 
their  own  course  of  study,  and  may  by  per- 
mission of  the  state  board  certificate  their  own 
teachers 

School  Support.  —  The  state  appropriation 
constitutes  about  65  per  cent  of  the  total  school 
revenue  for  the  state,  and  is  apportioned  to  the 
counties  and  local  systems  on  the  sole  basis  of 
the  number  of  children  6-18  years  of  age  In 
each  county  not  operating  under  special  laws,  an 
election  to  vote  a  countv  tax  inav  be  called  bv  a 
petition  signed  by  one  fourth  of  the  voters,  and 
a  two-thirds  majoiity  of  those  voting  enacts  the 
tax  The  county  board  determines  the  amount, 
not  to  exceed  five  mills  By  a  similar  petition 
and  election,  any  district  rnav  vote  a  similar 
district  tax,  the  local  boar  a  of  trustees  detei- 
mmmg  the  amount  up  to  five  mills  A  con- 
siderable amount  is  still  contributed  from 
private  sources,  and  in  some  districts  a  species 
of  the  rate  tax  LS  still  allowed,  by  common 
consent,  in  the  form  of  a  small  incidental  fee 
to  cover  the  cost  of  school  supplies,  fuel,  and 
janitor  service,  though  pupils  who  are  unable 
to  pay  are  excused  from  the  fee,  and  the  courts 
do  not  recognize  the  right  of  the  districts  to 
exact  the  fee 

Educational  Conditions  —  Of  the  population 
of  1910,  45  1  per  cent  were  negroes  and  99 
per  cent  were  native  born  But  three  states 
(Louisiana,  Mississippi,  and  South  Carolina) 
have  a  larger  percentage  of  negroes  in  the  total 
population  In  one  half  of  the  counties  the 
blacks  outnumber  the  whites,  and  in  one 
fourth  of  the  counties  they  outnumber  the 
whites  two  or  more  to  one  The  percentage  of 
children,  5-18  years  of  age,  m  the  total  popu- 
lation (334  per  cent),  is  high,  being  larger  in 
but  four  states,  and  all  of  these  in  the  South. 
While  the  state  has  made  rapid  advances  in 
manufacturing  within  recent  years,  it  is  still 


57 


GEORGIA 


GEORGIA,    UNIVERSITY  OF 


largely  an  agricultural  state,  as  84  4  per  cent 
of  the  total  population  live  in  rural  districts, 
and  but  11  per  cent  in  cities  of  over  8000 
inhabitants. 

In  illiteracy,  Georgia  stood  sixth  in  1900  in 
its  percentage  of  the  total  population,  ten 
years  or  over,  who  were  illiterate  By  race, 
the  state  stood  third  in  illiteracy  for  the  negro 
population  and  ninth  for  the  white  population, 
and  by  percentage,  11.9  per  cent  of  the  whites 
and  52  4  per  cent  of  the  negroes  were  illiterate 
There  was  little  difference  in  illiteracy  between 
the  sexes.  But  1.1  per  cent  of  the  total  popu- 
lation of  the  state  was  of  foreign  birth 

Outside  of  the  towns  and  cities,  the  state 
has  little  material  equipment  for  the  work  of 
education.  The  average  value  of  all  publicly 
owned  schoolhouses  in  the  state  during  the 
last  year  for  which  statistics  are  available  was 
about  $1800  Much  of  the  money  for  repairs 
and  for  new  buildings  in  the  rural  districts  is 
raised  by  private  subscription  The  school 
term,  too,  is  commonly  lengthened  by  the  same 
means,  many  communities  providing  what  are 
called  long-term  schools  by  private  subscription. 
The  subject  matter  of  instruction  embraces 
agriculture,  civil  government,  and  physiology 
and  hygiene,  in  addition  to  the  common  school 
branches  The  State  Board  of  Education 
adopts  a  uniform  system  of  textbooks  for  the 
schools  of  the  state,  but  counties,  cities,  and 
towns  that  levy  a  tax  for  graded  schools  and 
maintain  an  eight-months  school  are  not  re- 
quired to  use  the  uniform  series  Each  county 
board  is  authorized  by  law  to  establish  one  or 
more  manual  labor  schools,  but  such  schools 
must  be  self-sustaining  As  in  Alabama,  the 
elementary  school  system  of  Georgia  is  just 
now  being  rounded  out  and  classified. 

Teachers  and  Training  —  For  the  training 
of  future  teachers,  the  state  maintains  or  helps 
to  maintain  four  institutions,  one  of  which  is 
for  the  colored  race,  and  there  arc  also  three 
private  normal  and  industrial  schools,  all  of 
which  are  for  the  colored  race  Of  the  state 
schools,  the  Georgia  Normal  and  Industrial 
College  for  whites  at  Millcdgeville,  and  the 
Georgia  State  Industrial  College  for  negroes 
at  Savannah,  are  partly  normal  and  partly 
industrial  institutions,  and  of  a  type  common  in 
the  South  The  law  of  the  state  still  authorizes 
two  forms  of  teachers'  contracts,  one  the  usual 
Jorm  by  the  month,  and  the  other  where  pay- 
ments are  made  to  private  school  teachers  who 
take  public  school  r-uoils  at  a  certain  rate 
based  on  enrollment  and  attendance,  and  thus 
conduct  a  long-term  school.  The  wages  of  the 
teachers  are  low 

Secondary  Education.  —  Georgia  has  its  high 
school  system  better  developed  than  any  of 
the  neighboring  Southern  States,  the  state  re- 
porting 231  public  and  48  private  high  schools 
Of  the  public  high  schools,  12  were  in  cities  of 
*>000  inhabitants  or  over,  while  219  were  in 
imaller  places.  Six  of  the  total  number  of 


58 


high  schools  were  for  the  colored  race  The 
ptate  has  recently  (1910)  authorized  state  aid 
to  high  schools,  such  aid  having  been  expressly 
forbidden  by  the  Constitution  of  1877.  With 
the  development  of  the  agricultural  and  natural 
resources  of  the  state,  and  the  consequent  in- 
crease in  the  amount  of  money  available  for 
education,  conditions  may  be  expected  to  im- 
prove very  rapidly 

Higher  and  Technical  Education  — The 
University  of  Georgia  (q  v  )  at  Athens,  founded 
in  1784  and  opened  in  1800;  the  Georgia  State 
College  of  Agriculture  and  Mechanical  Arts, 
also  at  Athens,  and  opened  in  1872;  the 
Georgia  School  of  Technology,  at  Atlanta, 
opened  in  1888;  and  the  North  Georgia  Agri- 
cultural College  at  Dahlonega,  opened  in  1872, 
stand  at  the  culmination  of  the  public  school 
system  of  the  state  The  Georgia  State  In- 
dustrial College,  at  Savannah,  offers  somewhat 
similar  instruction  for  the  colored  race  Georgia 
has  a  large  number  of  colleges,  nearly  all 
denominational,  some  of  them  for  the  negro 
race,  which  offer  preparatory  and  collegiate 
instruction  Few  of  them  have  much  endow- 
ment or  high  standards  The  state  also  main- 
tains the  Georgia  Academy  for  the  Blind,  at 
Macon,  the  Georgia  School  for  the  Deaf  at 
Cave  Spring,  the  Georgia  Normal  and  Industrial 
College  for  girls,  at  Milledgeville;  and  eleven 
district  agricultural  schools  for  the  teaching  of 
the  elements  of  agriculture  The  Normal  and 
Industrial  College  is  one  of  a  type  of  institu- 
tions found  in  the  South,  which  offers  training 
to  girls  along  vocational,  industrial,  normal,  and 
musical  and  artistic  lines 

W   H    K   and  B    P.  C 

References :  — 

Annual  Reports  of  the  Department  of  Education,  State  of 

Georgia,  1873-dutr 
Constitutions  of  the  State  of  Georgia,  adopted  in  1777, 

1789,  1798,  1861,  1865,  1S68,  and  1877 
JOHNSTON,  R    M      Early  Educational   Life  in  Middle 

Georgia,    in  Reports,  U  S    Corn   J£C?MC  ,  1894-1895, 

Vol    II,   pp     1699-1733,    1895-1896,   Vol    I,   pp 

839-886 
JONEH,   C    E      Education   in  Georgia      Circ    Irif    U  S 

Bur  Eduo  ,  No  4,  1888      (Washington,  1889  ) 
Laws  Relating  to  the  Common  School  System,  1909 
Legislative  Enactments  published  annually 

GEORGIA,   UNIVERSITY   OF,  ATHENS, 

GA  —  The  earliest  state  university  in  the 
United  States,  chartered  in  February,  1784, 
while  the  University  of  the  state  of  New  York 
received  its  charter  in  May,  1784.  By  the 
amended  charter  of  1785  all  public  education 
m  Georgia  was  made  a  part  of  the  University 
(see  GEORGIA,  STATE  OF)  The  early  studies 
provided  m  the  University  were  mainly  literary, 
and  only  the  arts  degree  was  conferred  The 
land  grants  made  by  Congress  in  1862  made 
the  establishment  of  the  Georgia  State  College 
of  Agriculture  and  the  Mechanical  Arts  and 
the  provision  of  modern  scientific  studies  pos- 
sible In  1867  the  Lumpkm  Law  School  was 
incorporated  as  a  department  of  the  University; 


GERBERT 


HERBERT,  MARTIN 


the*  North  Georgia  Agricultural  College  fol- 
lowed m  1872;  and  in  1873  the  Georgia  Medi- 
cal College  at  Augusta  became  a  department 
of  the  University  The  following  institutions 
are  also  branches  or  departments  of  the  Uni- 
versity: Georgia  School  of  Technology  at 
Atlanta,  1885;  Georgia  Normal  and  Industrial 
College  for  Girls  at  Milledgeville,  1889;  Georgia 
Industrial  School  for  Colored  Youth  at  Sa- 
vannah, 1890;  and  the  State  Normal  School, 
near  Athens,  1895  More  recent  extensions 
are  the  School  of  Pharmacy,  1903;  the  Sum- 
mer School,  1904;  Georgia  State  College  of 
Agriculture;  the  School  of  Forestry,  1906;  and 
the  School  of  Education,  1908  Franklin  Col- 
lege is  the  college  of  arts  The  government  of 
the  University  is  in  the  hands  of  a  Board  of 
Trustees  appointed  by  the  Governor.  The  sup- 
port comes  from  state  taxation,  federal  grants, 
and  private  gifts.  The  University  campus 
extends  over  an  area  of  132  acres,  and  the  Uni- 
versity farm  covers  830  acres.  The  mam  build- 
ing equipment  comprises  fifteen  buildings  The 
admission  requirements  are  fourteen  units, 
four  conditions  being  allowed  The  degrees  of 
Bachelor  of  Arts,  Bachelor  of  Science,  Bachelor 
of  Science  in  Civil  Engineering  or  Agriculture, 
Bachelor  of  Law  (after  a  two  years'  course), 
are  conferred  on  completion  of  the  appro- 
priate courses  Degrees  are  also  conferred  by 
some  of  the  affiliated  institutions,  as  the  North 
Georgia  Agricultural  College,  the  Medical  Col- 
lege, the  Georgia  School  of  Technology  The 
enrollment  of  students  at  Athens  in  1910-11  was 
940,  distributed  as  follows-  graduate  school,  7; 
college,  180;  science  and  engineering,  176;  agri- 
culture, 223;  law,  55;  pharmacy,  19;  summer 
school,  337  The  University  at  Athens  has  a 
faculty  of  46  members,  of  whom  25  are  profes- 
sors and  9  adjunct  professors  David  Cren- 
shaw  Barrow,  LL  D  ,  is  the  chancellor 

GERBERT,  or  GERBERTUS  —  One  of  the 

most  remarkable  scholars  of  the  Middle  Ages, 
and  a  man  who  had  a  marked  influence  upon 
mathematical  instruction  He  was  born  at  or 
neai  Aurillac,  about  950  Richer,  his  pupil 
and  friend,  to  whom  we  are  indebted  for  most 
of  our  knowledge  of  his  life,  speaks  of  him  as 
an  Aquitanian,  and  relates  that  as  a  child  he 
entered  the  monastery  of  Saint  Ge*rauld 
Other  writers  speak  of  his  family  as  being  re- 
lated to  royalty,  but  in  spite  of  careful  research 
his  parentage  still  remains  obscure  He  seems 
to  have  been  a  brilliant  student,  and  one  of 
agreeable  manner  and  without  forwardness. 
In  967  Borel,  Comte  d'Argel,  lately  become 
lord  of  Barcelona,  visited  Aurillac  and  saw  the 
youthful  Gerbcrt  The  abbot,  informed  by 
Borel  that  Spain  at  that  time  had  a  number  of 
distinguished  scholars,  confided  Gerbert  to  him 
in  order  that  the  boy  might  acquire  the  learn- 
ing of  that  country  Borel  gave  Gerbert  into 
the  charge  of  Hatton,  Bishop  of  Vich,  under 
whom,  Richer  tells  us,  "  he  made  rapid  progress, 


particularly  in  mathematics  "  Gerbcrt  10- 
mamed  three  years  m  Barcelona,  and  in  this 
time  he  may  possibly  have  learned  the  Hindu- 
Arabic  numerals  (see  NOTATION),  since  he 
knew  something  of  them  later  in  life  After 
this  sojourn  he  accompanied  Borel  and  Hatton 
to  Rome,  where  m  970  he  was  presented  to 
Pope  John  XIII  The  Pope  *vas  so  pleased 
with  the  young  monk's  proficiency  in  music 
and  astronomy  that  he  spoke  of  him  to  Otho  I, 
a  monarch  with  great  interest  in  education, 
although  himself  illiterate  Through  these 
circumstances  and  by  means  of  his  natural 
abilities,  Gerbert  obtained  the  favor  of  both 
Pope  and  emperor,  and  m  972,  at  his  request, 
he  was  allowed  to  go  to  Rheirns  with  the  arch- 
deacon Garamnus  in  order  to  study  logic  under 
this  scholar  The  diocese  of  Rheims  at  that 
time  possessed  700  cures  and  23  monasteries, 
the  most  important  of  the  latter  being  that  of 
St  Denis  Here  it  was  that  Gerbert  carried 
on  his  later  studies,  and  here  he  made  a  brilliant 
reputation  as  a  teacher  His  chief  work  in 
the  lecture  hall  was  m  rhetoric,  but  he  acquired 
a  great  renown  as  an  arithmetician  from  his 
use  of  a  special  form  of  the  abacus  (</  v  ) ,  a 
form  that  may  have  been  invented  bv  him 
He  also  used  certain  numerals  known  as  the 
apices  (see  NOTATION),  forms  that  are  often 
attributed  to  Boethius  (q  v  ).  He  also  had  a 
great  reputation  for  his  work  in  astronomy, 
which  subject  he  taught  at  Rheims  After  a 
brilliant  period  of  teaching  in  this  monastery 
he  was  made  abbot  at  Bobbio  (982),  one  of  the 
most  important  church  positions  in  Italy,  and 
nine  years  later  (991)  he  became  Archbishop  of 
Rheims  In  998  he  became  Archbishop  of 
Ravenna,  and  a  year  later  he  was  elevated  to 
the  papal  chair  as  Sylvester  II  He  reigned  as 
Pope  only  four  years,  dying  on  May  12,  1003 
His  mathematical  works  include  a  treatise  on 
the  abacus,  a  work  DC  numcrorum  dwiswne, 
and  a  work  De  geometria  DBS 

References :  — 

BALL,  W    W    R      History  of  Mathematics      (London, 

1908) 
OAJORI,     F      History    of    Mathematns      (New     York, 

1890  ) 
CANTOR,     M      Gemhuhte    der    Mathematik      (Leipzig, 

188O  1908  ) 
HOCK,  K    VON      Gerbert  otier  Papal  Sylvester   yrui  sein 

Jahrhundert       (Vienna,  1837  ) 
OLLERIS,  A      Oeuvrea  de  Gerbert      (Pans,  1867  ) 
NAQL,  A      Gerbert  urul  dn    Rechenkunst  de*  10    Jahr- 
hunderts      (Vienna,  1888  ) 

GERBERT,  MARTIN,  BARON  OF  HOR- 
NAU  AND  PRINCE-ABBOT  OF  ST  BLAISE 

(1720-1793)  —  One  of  the  most  learned  and 
saintly  Roman  Catholic  prelates  of  the  eight- 
eenth century  He  was  educated  at  the  Jesuit 
College  at  Freiburg  and  in  the  cloister  of  St. 
Blaise  and  enriched  his  mind  by  varied  culture 
and  by  travels,  from  which  he  brought  back 
abundant  spoil  of  MSB  from  the  libraries  of 
Europe  Historical  research,  especially  in 


59 


GERBIER 


GERMAN  INFLUENCE 


music,  was  his  favorite  pursuit.  He  formed 
relations  with  learned  societies  everywhere,  and 
made  many  important  discoveries  in  this  field 
His  treatise  De  Cantu  et  Musica  was  published 
in  two  volumes  in  1774  and  has  ever  since  formed 
the  basis  of  all  musical  scholarship  The 
Scriptores  Ecclesiastic?,  de  Musica  Sacra  (1784) 
created  a  sensation  in  the  musical  world  and 
was  of  the  highest  value  for  the  study  of  music 
It  was  a  collection  of  all  the  ancient  authors 
who  had  written  upon  musical  subjects  from  the 
third  century  to  the  invention  of  printing  and 
whose  works  had  remained  in  manuscript  and 
were  for  the  most  part  unknown.  W.  R. 

Reference :  — 

Catholic  Encyclopedia,  s  v  Gerbert 

GERBIER,  SIR  BALTHAZAR  (?1591-1667) 
—  Painter,  architect,  and  courtier  He  de- 
vised schemes  for  the  education  of  noblemen  and 
gentlemen's  sons  m  an  Academy  m  Bethnal 
Green  Gerbier  was  a  Dutchman  and  came  to 
England  m  1616  and  entered  the  service  of  George 
Vilhers,  afterwards  Duke  of  Buckingham  In 
1631  Gerbier  was  King  Charles  I's  agent  at 
Brussels  and  in  1641  Master  of  the  Ceremonies 
He  issued  prospectuses,  June  28,  1648,  and  in 
1649  on  June  18,  August  4,  October  31  The 
prospectus  for  June  28,  1648,  is  addressed  to 
"  all  Fathers  of  Noble  Families  and  lovers  of 
Virtue,"  in  which  he  stated  he  was  founding  an 
Academy  in  which  would  be  taught  French, 
Italian,  Spanish,  German,  and  Low  Dutch, 
both  ancient  arid  modern  histories,  jointly  with 
the  constitution  and  government  of  the  most 
famous  empires  and  estates  of  the  world 
Courses  were  given  in  experimental  Natural  Phi- 
losophy, mathematics,  including  arithmetic, 
bookkeeping  "  by  double  parties,"  geometry, 
geography,  cosmography,  perspective,  and 
architecture,  practical  mathematics,  to  include 
fortification,  besieging,  and  defending  of  places, 
fireworks,  ordering  of  battalia,  and  marches  of 
arms;  rnusic,  playing  of  all  sorts  of  instruments, 
dancing,  fencing,  riding  the  erect  horse,  to- 
gether with  the  new  manner  of  fighting  on 
horseback  Permission  was  also  to  be  made 
for  teaching  drawing,  painting,  limning,  and 
carving  Gerbier  announced  that  he  was  him- 
self preparing  treatises  for  the  study  of  modern 
languages.  He  was  also  prepared  to  lodge  the 
sons  of  gentlemen  in  his  own  house  at  Bethnal 
Green  He  thus  promises  to  parents  an  edu- 
cation for  their  sons  at  home  in  England,  sim- 
ilar to  what  they  could  get  in  academies  abroad 
and  the  avoidance  of  the  "  dangers  and  in- 
conveniences "  of  education  abroad,  "  in  these 
evil  times  "  In  the  prospectus  of  August  4, 
1649,  Gerbier  provides  a  time-table  The 
regulations  are  modeled  to  some  extent  on 
those  of  Sir  Francis  Kinaston's  (q  v  )  Musaeum 
Minervae  On  December  21,  1649,  he  issued 
a  notice  that  ladies  might  attend  his  lectures, 
and  adventurer  as  he  was,  he  is  probably  to  be 


60 


credited  with  being  the  first  in  England  to  en- 
courage the  idea  of  men  and  women  attending 
academic  lectures  together  F.  W. 

See  GENTRY  AND  NOBLES,  EDUCATION  OF; 
ACADEMIES,  COURTLY 

References :  — 

ADAMSON,  J  W  Pioneers  of  Modern  Education.  (Cam- 
bridge, 1905 ) 

Dictionary  of  National  Biography 

WATSON,  FOSTER  Beginnings  of  the  Teaching  of  Mod- 
em Subjects  in  England  (London,  1909.) 

GERMAN  INFLUENCE  ON  AMERICAN 
EDUCATION  —  German  educational  ideas 
and  methods  have  profoundly  influenced  all 
parts  of  the  American  system  of  education,  but 
especially  its  top  and  its  foundation,  the  uni- 
versity and  the  elementary  school,  including  the 
kindergarten,  both  of  which  have  been  either 
created  or  fashioned  on  the  model  of  the  corre- 
sponding German  institutions 

This  influence  has  been  exerted  through  five 
different  channels,  which,  of  course,  frequently 
run  into  one  another  and  cannot  be  entirely 
separated,  namely,  (a)  through  the  work  of 
German-Americans  and  of  German-American 
schools;  (b)  through  American  students  edu- 
cated in  German  universities  (see  Rep  U  S 
Corn  Ed,  1897-1898,  Vol  I,  pp  610-013); 
(c)  through  reports  on  German  education  pub- 
lished by  American  and  other  visitors  of  Ger- 
man schools;  (d)  through  the  study  of  German 
pedagogy,  psychology,  and  philosophy  on  the 
part  of  Americans  in  this  country;  and 
(e)  through  the  work  of  German  lecturers 
brought  over  either  as  exchange  professors  or 
by  invitation  of  such  bodies  as  the  Ger- 
mamstic  Society  of  America  (q  v) 

Of  these,  the  direct  influence  of  German- 
Americans  and  of  the  German-American  schools 
has  been  comparatively  small,  certainly  not  so 
great  as  might  have  been  expected,  considering 
the  numerical  proportion  of  the  German  ele- 
ment, which  is  estimated  at  about  27  per 
cent  of  the  total  population.  The  chief 
reason  for  this  lack  of  direct  influence  lies 
probably  in  the  difference  of  language,  which 
separated  the  German- American  schools  from 
the  mam  current  of  national  education,  and 
also  in  the  fact  that  nearly  all  of  these  schools 
were  either  private  or  parochial  schools.  Still 
a  large  number  of  German-American  teachers 
have  played  an  important  part  in  American 
education  Among  these  are  Franz  Daniel 
Pastonus  (1651-1719),  the  first  German  teacher 
m  America,  the  founder  of  Germantown;  Carl 
Follen  (1795-1840),  the  first  professor  of  the 
German  language  in  Harvard;  Francis  Lieber 
(1800-1872),  who  introduced  gymnastic  train- 
ing into  Boston  and  afterwards  became  one  of 
the  greatest  jurists  of  America,  H  E.  von  Hoist, 
the  author  of  the  Constitutional  History  of  the 
United  States;  William  N.  Hailmann,  super- 
intendent of  public  schools  at  La  Porte.  Ind. 
(1883-1894),  afterwards  national  supermteri- 


GERMAN  INFLUENCE 


GERMAN  INFLUENCE 


dent  of  Indian  Schools;  and  many  others 
What  was  perhaps  the  earliest  book  of  a  peda- 
gogical nature  to  appear  in  this  country  was 
from  the  pen  of  a  German,  Christopher  Dock 
(qv),  a  master  of  one  of  the  early  Pennsyl- 
vania schools  (See  PENNSYLVANIA,  STATE  OF, 
PAROCHIAL  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  ) 

Among  the  first  American  students  matricu- 
lated in  German  universities  were  George 
Tichnor,  Edward  Everett,  George  Bancroft, 
and  Joseph  G  Cogswell,  all  of  whom  studied  in 
the  University  of  Gottmgen  Everett  was  the 
first  American  who  received  a  Ph  D  degree  from 
a  German  university  (1819)  Previous  to  this, 
Benjamin  Smith  Barton,  of  Lancaster,  Pa  , 
had  obtained  the  degree  of  Doctor  of  Medicine 
from  the  same  university  (1799)  Bancroft 
and  Cogswell  founded  (1823)  the  Round  Hill 
School,  near  Northampton,  Mass ,  the  first 
school  in  this  country  thoroughly  impressed 
with  the  German  ideas  During  the  remaining 
part  of  the  nineteenth  century  and  up  to  the 
present  an  increasing  number  of  American 
students  have  pursued  advanced  studies  at 
Gottmgen,  Berlin,  Halle,  and  later  on  also  at 
Leipzig,  Bonn,  Heidelberg,  Jena,  and  other 
German  universities  Hundreds  of  these  have 
become  professors  in  American  colleges  and 
have  transplanted  German  ideas  of  advanced 
instruction  and  German  methods  of  research 
upon  American  soil  Through  their  students 
in  the  graduate  departments  of  universities 
and  colleges  this  influence  has  been  very  widely 
extended  The  foundation  of  Johns  Hopkins 
University  in  1876  marks  an  epoch  in  American 
university  education  This  institution  was, 
in  its  fundamental  ideas,  largely  modeled  on 
the  pattern  of  the  German  university,  and  most 
of  its  early  professors  had  been  students  in 
Germany  (Sec  COLLEGE,  AMERICAN,  UNI- 
VERSITIES, AMERICAN  ) 

The  most  important  reports  on  German 
education  which  influenced  American  schools 
were  those  of  John  Griscom  (q  v  )  (1819),  Alexf- 
ander  D  Bache  (q  v  ),  and  C  E  Stowe  (q  v  ) 
(1833),  but  particularly  that  of  Victor  Cousin 
(q  v  )  (1831),  which  was  translated  into  English, 
and  published  in  the  United  States  m  1835 
The  American  publication  of  Cousin's  work 
proved  to  be  of  enormous  influence  on  educa- 
tion in  the  Middle  West  Equally  important 
was  the  famous  Seventh  Annual  Report  of 
Horace  Mann  (1843),  which,  among  other 
things,  called  special  attention  to  the  methods 
of  the  Prussian  normal  schools 

The  study  of  German  literature  and  phi- 
losophy among  English-speaking  peoples  may 
largely  be  traced  back  to  the  influence  of  Cole- 
ridge and  Carlyle  In  America  these  studies 
received  an  impetus  through  Emerson,  Theo- 
dore Parker,  Margaret  Fuller,  Frederick  H 
Hedge,  Henry  Barnard,  William  T  Hams, 
Elizabeth  Peabody,  Charles  De  Garmo,  and 
others.  Barnard,  in  his  Journal  of  Education, 
published  translations  from  Karl  von  Raumer's 


History  of  Pedagogy;  Harris  studied  the 
philosophical  system  of  Hegel  and  the  peda- 
gogical philosophy  of  Karl  Rosenkranz,  Miss 
Peabody  became  an  enthusiastic  follower  of 
Froebel  and  founded  (1867)  the  American 
Froebel  Union  ;  Charles  De  Garmo,  the 
McMurrys,  and  others,  introduced  American 
teachers  to  the  pedagogy  and  philosophy  of 
Herbart 

The  custom  of  bringing  over  German  lec- 
turers on  educational  subjects  is  of  recent 
origin,  so  that  the  results  of  this  activity  still 
lie  with  the  future  Yet  an  important  influ- 
ence may  be  expected  at  least  in  two  directions, 
namely,  towards  vocational  training,  through 
the  work  of  the  Munich  school  superintendent, 
Dr  Georg  Kerschenstemer,  and  towards  the 
improvement  m  teaching  modern  foreign  lan- 
guages through  the  inspiration  given  by  Dr 
Max  Walter,  director  of  the  Musterschule  in 
Frankfort  a  M  F.  M. 

See  under  separate  titles  for  further  account 
of  the  persons  mentioned  m  this  article,  esp  , 
PESTALOZZIAN  MOVEMENT  IN  AMERICA,  MAN- 
UAL LABOR  INSTITUTIONS,  FELLENBERG,  FROE- 
BEL, KINDERGARTEN;  COLONIAL  PERIOD  IN 
AMERICAN  EDUCATION;  etc 

GERMAN  INFLUENCE  ON  ENGLISH 
EDUCATION  —At  the  time  of  the  Reforma- 
tion, German  influence,  commingled  with  that 
of  Erasmus,  Calvin,  and  Sturm,  made  a  deep 
and  lasting  impression  upon  the  course  of 
study  in  English  schools  and  upon  the 
English  idea  of  the  relation  between  the 
state  and  education  Luther's  Schrift  an 
die  Rathxhenen  allcr  Stadtc  Deutschlands,  daw 
vie  Chribttiche  Srhulen  aufnchten  und  halten 
xollen,  written  in  1524,  had  its  echo  in  the  pre- 
amble to  the  Chantry  Act  passed  m  the  first 
year  of  King  Edward  VI  (1547),  and  in  the 
Constitutions  and  Canons  Ecclesiastical  of 
the  Church  of  England,  1603,  especially  Can- 
ons LIX  and  LXXVII-LXXIX  There  are 
traces  of  the  same  influence  in  English  Poor 
Law  administration  ah  early  ah  the  reign  of 
Elizabeth  and  pnoi  to  the  Poor  Law  Relief  Act 
of  1601,  which  first  recognized  the  public  obliga- 
tion to  supply  elementary  education  in  the  case 
of  the  children  of  the  destitute  poor  In  the 
curriculum  of  the  English  Grammar  Schools 
the  educational  influence  of  Melanchthon  (qv), 
combined  with  that  of  Maturm  Cordier  (qv.) 
of  Geneva,  is  clear,  especially  in  the  emphasis 
which  was  laid  upon  religious  instruction  as  a 
dominant  feature  in  the  course  of  training. 

The  influence  of  Protestant  Germany  was 
deepened  in  English  education  in  the  seven- 
teenth century  by  the  study  of  the  works  of 
Comemus  (q  v.),  'and  especially  of  his  Great 
Didactic  (first  published  in  Latin,  1657),  and  of 
the  Januae  Linguarum  Vestibulum  (English 
translation,  1647)  and  Orbis  Pictus  (1657)  At 
the  invitation  of  his  friend,  Samuel  Hartlib, 
Comemus  visited  England  in  1641,  and,  if  the 


61 


GERMAN  INFLUENCE 


GERMAN  INFLUENCE 


disturbed  political  condition  of  the  country  had 
not  prevented  it,  might  well  have  been  engaged 
to  take  a  leading  part  in  the  reorganization  of 
English  education.  Comemus's  work  was  well 
known  to  Milton,  and  he  is  referred  to  in  the 
latter's  Tractate  an  Education  (1644)  as  "  a 
person  sent  hither  by  some  good  Providence 
from  a  far  country  to  be  the  occasion  and  the 
incitement  of  great  good  to  this  island."  The 
Civil  War,  however,  and  the  reactionary  ten- 
dencies of  the  Restoration  period  prevented 
the  influence  of  Corncmus  from  bearing  full 
fruit  m  the  educational  life  of  England. 

In  the  last  years  of  the  seventeenth  century, 
1698-1699,  Dr  Bray  (q  v  )  and  his  associates 
established  a  Society  for  Propagating  Christian 
Knowledge  (q  v.),  one  mam  purpose  of  which 
was  "  to  set  up  catechetical  schools  for  the  edu- 
cation of  poor  children  in  reading  and  writing, 
and  more  especially  in  the  principles  of  the 
Christian  religion  "  In  the  movement  for 
the  reformation  of  English  morals  and  for  the 
establishment  of  charity  schools  (q.v.)t  the  in- 
fluence of  the  German  Pietists  was  strong 
August  Hermann  Fraricke  (q  v )  was  asked  to 
send  over  two  Germans  to  help  in  the  setting 
up  of  Charity  Schools,  and  these  two  visitors 
attended  a  meeting  of  the  Society  on  May  11, 
1699,  to  give  an  account  of  the  school  which 
had  been  erected  at  Halle  by  A  H  Franckc, 
who  was  at  the  same  meeting  chosen  a  corre- 
sponding member  of  the  Society 

The  educational  efforts  of  John  Wesley 
(1703-1791),  especially  during  the  years  1742 
onwards,  were  greatly  influenced  by  what  he 
saw  among  the  Moravians  during  his  visit  to 
Herrnhut  in  1738  The  Moravian  polity, 
influenced  by  Pietism  (q  v),  made  the  Orphan 
House,  which  aimed  at  giving  a  Christian  educa- 
tion to  boys  and  girls,  an  essential  part  of  the 
organization  of  the  Church  From  1760  Mora- 
vian schools  in  England  have  exercised  a  quiet 
but  beneficial  influence  in  English  education 

The  next  great  wave  of  German  influence 
came  into  Englihh  education  through  S  T 
Coleridge,  who,  in  1830,  in  his  essay  on  The 
Constitution  of  the  Church  and  State  according 
to  the  Idea  of  Each,  echoed  the  teaching  of 
Fichte  (q  v  )  that  the  aim  of  statesmen  should 
be  "to  form  arid  tram  up  the  people  of  the 
country  to  obedient,  free,  useful,  and  organi- 
zable  subjects,  citizens  and  patriots,  living  to  the 
benefit  of  the  state  and  prepared  to  die  in  its 
defence."  Throughout  the  great  speeches  on 
education  made  in  the  English  Parliament  by 
Brougham  (qv.),  Roebuck,  and  others  during 
the  years  1833-1835,  German  precedent  for  com- 
pulsory education  was  quoted  as  a  convincing 
proof  of  the  practicability  of  making  elementary 
instruction  obligatory  by  law  After  Cole- 
ridge, Thomas  Carlyle  (q  v  )  did  much  to  famil- 
iarize the  English  public  with  German  ideals 
of  state-organized  education,  especially  in  Past 
and  Present  (1843)  and  in  Latter-Day  Pant- 
phlets  (1850).  It  was,  however,  through  Albert, 


62 


the  Prince  Consort  (who  married  Queen  Vic- 
toria in  1840),  that  enlightened  German  ideas 
as  to  the  action  of  the  state  in  public  education 
became  most  widely  extended  in  England. 
During  the  twenty-one  years  of  his  residence 
in  England,  Prince  Albert  succeeded,  with  the 
help  of  Lyon  Playfair  and  others,  in  develop- 
ing the  State  Department  of  Art  and  Science 
and  in  promoting  wise  extensions  of  state  ac- 
tivity in  elementary  and  technical  education. 

The  success  of  the  Prussian  army  in  the  war 
with  Austria  in  1 866  drew  attention  to  the  mili- 
tary and  social  value  of  the  intelligence  and 
discipline  which  had  been  diffused  throughout 
the  German  people  by  the  elaborate  organiza- 
tion of  state-aided  schools  The  impression 
thus  produced  upon  the  public  mind  was  one 
factor  which  led  to  the  carrying  of  the  Ele- 
mentary Education  Act  in  1870  and  to  the  sub- 
sequent adoption  in  1876  of  the  principle  of 
compulsory  education  (See  ENGLAND,  EDI- 
CATION  IN  ) 

Since  that  time  German  influence  in  English 
education  has  been  persistent  and  penetrating 
At  every  point  German  methods  have  been 
investigated  and  German  precedents  quoted 
Of  all  English  writers,  Matthew  Arnold  (q  v  ) 
was  the  most  successful  in  attracting  the  atten- 
tion of  responsible  English  administrators  and 
statesmen  to  the  value  of  the  German  methods 
of  educational  organization  Since  1880  Ger- 
man influence  has  consequently  been  note- 
worthy in  English  policy  as  regards  secondary 
education,  technical  instruction,  and  university 
development  The  latest  illustration  of  the 
same  influence  is  found  in  the  movement  for 
the  enforcement  of  attendance  at  continuation 
schools,  part  of  the  Scottish  Act  of  1908  having 
been  avowedly  modeled  to  some  extent  on 
German  precedent,  and  the  latter  being  con- 
stantly quoted  in  favor  of  the  adoption  of  a 
similar  policy  in  England. 

In  four  respects  German  influence  has  been 
especially  strong  in  English  education  (1)  From 
the  Reformation  to  the  present  time  it  has 
tended  to  strengthen  the  view  that  religious 
teaching  should  be  part  of  the  regular  curricu- 
lum of  state-aided  elementary  and  secondary 
schools  (2)  Throughout  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury it  has  supported  the  idea  that  the  state 
should  take  an  effective  and,  indeed,  deter- 
minative, part  in  the  regulation  of  all  grades  of 
national  education  (3)  It  has  stimulated  in 
the  highest  degree  the  scientific  study  of  meth- 
ods of  teaching  and  of  the  philosophy  of  educa- 
tion (4)  It  has  secured  general  acceptance 
for  the  view  that  the  state  can  help  in  develop- 
ing the  economic  prosperity  of  a  nation  by 
the  systematic  encouragement  of  technical  and 
commercial  instruction.  M.  E.  S. 

References :  — 

ALLEN,  W  O  B  and  McCLURE,  E  A  History  of  the 
Society  for  Promoting  Christian  Knowledge,  1698- 
1898.  (London,  1898 ) 


GERMAN  LANGUAGE 


GERMANY 


ARNOLD,  MATTHEW  Report  on  the  System  of  Educa- 
tion for  the  Middle  and  Upper  Clauses  in  France, 
Germany,  Switzerland,  and  Italy.  Schools  Inquiry 
Commission,  1868,  Vol  VI,  especially  pp  548  ff 

COLERIDGE,  S  T.  The  Constitution  of  the  Church  and 
State  according  to  the  Idea  of  Each 

KEATINGE,  M  W  The  Great  Didactic  of  John  Amos 
Comenius  (Especially  Introduction )  (London, 
1896) 

LAUKIE,  S  S.  John  Amos  Comenius  (Cambridge, 
1899) 

M  A.RTIN,  THEODORE  Life  of  the  Pnnce  Consort  (Lon- 
don, 1875.) 

SADLER,  M.  E  Problems  in  Prussian  Secondary  Edu- 
cation for  Boys,  with  special  Reference  to  similar 
Questions  in  England  Board  of  Education,  Spe- 
cial Reports  on  Educational  Subjects,  Vol  III,  1898 
Continuation  Schools  in  England  and  Elsewhere. 
(Manchester,  1907  ) 

WATSON,  FOHTEK  The  English  Grammar  Schools  to 
1660,  their  Curriculum  and  Practice  (Cambridge, 
1908) 

Wesley's  Journal 

GERMAN  LANGUAGE  AND  LITERA- 
TURE IN  THE  SCHOOLS  —  See  MODERN 
LANGUAGES  AND  LITERATURES  IN  THE  SCHOOLS. 

GERMAN  WALLACE  COLLEGE  AND 
NAST  THEOLOGICAL  SEMINARY,  BEREA, 
OHIO  —  See  DEUTSCHE  WALLACE  KOLLEG- 
IUM 

GERMANISTIC  SOCIETY  OF  AMERICA, 

THE  —  Organized  in  New  York  City  in  1904 
to  promote  the  knowledge  and  study  of  Ger- 
man civilization  in  America  and  of  American 
civilization  in  Germany,  by  supporting  uni- 
versity instruction  in  these  subjects,  by  arrang- 
ing public  lectures,  by  publishing  arid  distribut- 
ing documents,  and  by  other  means  adapted 
to  the  ends  for  which  the  Society  is  established. 
In  accordance  with  this  program  a  lectureship 
on  the  History  of  German  Civilization  has  been 
maintained  at  Columbia  University  since  1905, 
while  during  the  first  term  of  the  academic  year 
1907-1908  a  similar  course  of  lectures  was 
delivered  at  Yale  University  Other  German 
scholars  and  authors  invited  by  the  Society  to 
lecture  in  New  York  and  other  cities  before 
colleges  and  universities  and  German  societies 
include  Professor  Fnedrich  Dehtzsch,  Berlin, 
Dr  Ludwig  Fulda,  Berlin;  Professor  Otto 
Hoetzsch,  Posen;  Professor  Hermann  Anders 
Kruger,  Hanover;  Dr  Carl  Hauptmann, 
Mittel-Schreiberhau,  Professor  Max  Fried- 
laender,  Berlin,  Professor  Rudolf  Lehmann, 
Posen ;  Ernst  von  Wolzogen,  Darmstadt ,  Profes- 
sor Wilhclm  Paszkowski,  Berlin;  and  Rudolf 
Herzog,  Rheinbreitbach.  Similarly  a  number 
of  American  scholars  have  lectured  in  Germany 
under  the  auspices  of  the  Society  and  of  the 
Prussian  and  Saxon  Ministries  of  Public  In- 
struction. In  addition  a  large  number  of 
single  lectures  and  courses  of  lectures  on  Ger- 
man literature,  music,  education,  art,  history, 
politics,  etc.,  have  been  provided  in  New  York 
City  (including  Brooklyn),  both  in  German 
and  in  English  In  1908  the  Society  inaugu- 
rated a  series  of  publications,  which  include 


lectures  delivered  by  Professor  John  W  Bur- 
gess, Columbia,  on  Germany  and  the  United 
States,  and  on  The  German  Emperor  and  the 
German  Government,  and  by  Dr  Carl  Haupt- 
mann on  Das  Geheimms  der  Gestalt  The  pub- 
lication of  a  quarterly  journal  devoted  to  the 
interests  of  the  Society  and  to  the  promotion 
of  the  aims  mentioned  above  is  contemplated 
The  first  president  of  the  Society  was  President 
Nicholas  Murray  Butler  of  Columbia  Univer- 
sity (1905-1907),  who  was  succeeded  by  Pro- 
fessor John  W  Burgess  (1907-1909)*  and 
Edward  D  Adams,  Esq  (1909-1911),  donor 
of  the  Deutsches  Haus  at  Columbia  Uni- 
versity arid  Professor  William  H  Carpenter  of 
Columbia  University  (1911-  )  R.  T.,  Jr. 

References :  — 

The   Activities  of  the  Oermanistic  Society  of  America, 

1904-1910      (New  York   1910) 
The  Activities  of  the  Oermanistic  Society  of  America,  1910 

(New  York,  1910  ) 

GERMANY,  EDUCATION  IN.  —  GEN- 
ERAL CHARACTERISTICS.  — The  German 
educational  system,  more  than  that  of  any 
other  country,  has  been  formed  on  the  one 
side  through  the  definite  plans  of  the  gov- 
erning body  and  on  the  other  through  the 
ideas  of  philosophic  thinkers,  and  has  always 
remained  m  a  condition  of  progress  and  de- 
velopment, although  it  has  often  been  criticized 
as  torpid  There  have  appeared  in  this  country 
neither  such  absolute  centralization  nor  such 
sudden  transformation  as  in  France  The  im- 
portance of  the  German  educational  system 
rests  mainly  on  the  elementarynschools,  the 
gymnasiums,  and  the  universities  But  be- 
sides these  many  other  types  of  educational 
and  training  institutions  have  been  developed 
and  at  present  are  increasing,  while  influences 
from  abroad  are  constantly  being  felt  and  fol- 
lowed Multiplicity  of  types  and  a  variety 
of  finer  distinctions  between  them  are  promoted 
by  the  existence  of  the  German  states  side  by 
side,  for  they  are  entirely  independent  in  their 
domestic  affairs  It  is  true  that  the  smaller 
states  have  frequently  followed  the  example  of 
the  largest  federal  state,  Prussia,  but  gen- 
erally this  has  not  been  done  without  con- 
siderable departures  Hence  an  understanding 
of  the  German  system  has  by  no  means  been 
acquired  after  a  glance  at  the  Prussian,  and 
there  is  as  little  justification  for  thinking  that 
a  knowledge  of  the  Prussian  schools  of  one 
particular  type  has  been  obtained  after  obser- 
vation of  one  individual  instance,  —  a  mistake 
which  is  easily  made  by  foreign  visitors.  Even 
where  the  regulations  are  at  bottom  similar, 
individual  institutions  may  show  considerable 
divergence  from  each  other  according  to  the 
personality  of  the  directors  and  teachers,  or 
their  particular  tradition,  or  the  spirit  of  the 
locality  and  its  people  At  present  also  the 
bodies  controlling  education  are  explicitly 
favoring  greater  independence  in  the  mdi- 


63 


GERMANY 


GERMANY 


vidual  schools  The  period  of  greatest  uni- 
formity has  passed  for  Germany,  while  in 
France  this  ideal  is  still  maintained  to  a  large 
extent  The  establishment  of  uniform  types 
of  schools  is  never  prompted  merely  by  the 
desire  for  control;  rather  is  this  based  on  a  belief 
that  the  ideal  has  been  discovered  and  a  desire 
that  this  ideal  should  be  put  into  practice  every- 
where Owing  both  to  external  (economic  and 
other)  arid  internal  reasons  some  hesitation  is 
apparent  in  relation  to  the  new  movement 
Foresight  and  discretion  are  particularly  nec- 
essary in  the  face  of  the  ever  increasing  clamor 
which  with  passionate  excitement  demands  the 
complete  overthrow  of  the  present  organiza- 
tion Further,  the  feeling  that  the  youth  of 
the  nation  should  not  be  hghtheartcdly  made 
the  subject  of  experimentation  must  meet  with 
approval.  Moreover  it  is  an  undeniable  fact 
that  Germany  owes  the  importance  which 
she  has  gamed  in  recent  times  in  part  to  the 
character  of  her  educational  system  Not 
rigidity,  but  flexibility;  not  hghthearted  de- 
struction, but  thoughtful  reorganization,  these 
may  be  said  to  characterize  the  fundamental 
attitude  of  educational  administration  in  Ger- 
many 

HISTORY  —  While  a  correct  appreciation 
of  the  educational  system  of  the  present  is 
impossible  without  a  knowledge  of  its  history, 
but  the  briefest  outline  will  be  given  here  with 
reference  to  the  titles  under  which  the  subjects 
are  discussed  In  the  Middle  Ages  education 
and  culture  in  Germany,  as  m  all  other  Euro- 
pean countries,  lay  in  the  hands  of  the  Church; 
this  period  is  described  under  Middle  Ages 
and  the  various  topics  to  which  cross  reference 
is  there  made  This  education  was  accom- 
panied in  the  case  of  the  upper  classes  of  society 
by  another  training  for  physical  and  military 
ability  and  excellence,  arid  at  the  height  of  the 
medieval  period  the  ideal  of  chivalnc  training 
was  introduced  from  France,  an  aim  which 
included  polite  conduct,  feeling  for  the  social 
accomplishments,  an  understanding  of  poetry 
and  music.  (See  CHIVALRIC  EDUCATION  )  For 
the  people  as  a  whole,  that  is  the  lower  class 
of  society,  beyond  the  general  religious  and 
moral  influence,  nothing  was  clone  (Sec, 
however,  the  CHARLEMACJNE  AND  EDUCATION 
for  the  period  of  revival  which  included  the 
Germans  )  For  the  simplest  needs  of  economic 
life  writing  and  ciphering  were  taught  in  private 
schools,  while  on  the  other  side  out  of  a  num- 
ber of  the  most  important  ecclesiastical  in- 
stitutions of  learning  there  grew  the  universities 
which,  however,  bore  no  national  character, 
but  reproduced  a  fairly  similar  type  in  France, 
Italy,  Spain,  England,  and  Germany,  and  in 
consequence  of  the  universal  prevalence  of 
Latin  were  visited  by  members  of  the  different 
nations.  (See  below  GERMAN  UNIVERSITIES  ) 

For  the  close  of  the  Middle  Ages  the  discus- 
sions under  SCHOLASTICISM,  RENAISSANCE 
PERIOD,  HUMANITIES,  CICERONIANISM,  and 


64 


especially  the  REFORMATION  AND  EDUCATION 
relate  to  Germany  Also  the  history  of  Uni- 
versities (q  v  )  is  closely  related  to  the  Teutonic 
peoples  The  development  during  the  Refor- 
mation is  further  discussed  under  Luther, 
Melanchthon,  Sturm,  and  other  leaders 

An  opportunity  for  the  founding  of  a  large 
number  of  important  schools  in  the  century  of 
the  Reformation  was  afforded  by  the  dissolution 
of  wealthy  monasteries  by  the  authorities  which 
had  adopted  Protestantism  Several  of  the 
schools  organized  at  that  period  attained  con- 
siderable reputation,  educated  men  of  renown, 
and  in  a  modified  form  are  still  in  existence; 
examples  are  the  Klosterschulen  (see  Cloister 
Schools)  in  Wurttemberg  and  the  Fursten- 
schulen  (q  v  )  in  Saxony  At  the  same  period, 
too,  the  ruling  princes  began  to  undertake  the 
task  of  educating  their  subjects,  not  as  might  be 
thought  merely  from  ideal  motives,  but  with 
the  not  unpraise  worthy  object  of  insuring  for 
their  countries  capable  officers,  judges,  preachers, 
and  teachers  Hence  in  the  course  of  the 
sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries  there  were 
issued  in  the  different  states  of  the  Empire 
well-planned  school  ordinances;  in  other 
words,  a  definite,  universal  organization  of  the 
school  system,  including  courses  of  study  and 
instructions  on  method,  took  place  Saxony, 
Brunswick,  Wurttemberg,  and  Saxe-Gotha  de- 
serve special  mention  here  (See  ERNEST  THE 
Pious,  GOTHA,  SCHOOL  REFORM  IN.)  The 
amount  of  industry  applied  by  teacher  and 
taught  in  schools  of  that  period  to  the  attain- 
ment of  the  established  humanistic  aim,  the 
number  of  periods,  and  the  extent  of  the  read- 
ing, can  cause  nothing  but  astonishment  The 
educational  actions  in  Catholic  Germany  dur- 
ing this  period  is  also  treated  under  JESUS, 
SOCIETY  OF,  EDUC  \TION\L  WORK  OF,  and  re- 
lated topics 

In  trre  seventeenth  century  the  eccentric 
Wolfgang  Ratke  (q  v  )  and  the  broad-minded 
and  keen-sighted  J  Amos  Comemus  (q  v ), 
who  proposed  entirely  new  ideas  and  plans  for 
the  aims  and  methods  of  instruction,  restored 
the  vernacular  to  its  more  important  place, 
sought  more  correct,  psychological  foundations, 
made  learning  easier  for  the  young,  and  hoped 
with  some  assurance  to  help  towards  a  hu- 
manity that  would  be  more  valuable.  These 
practical  efforts  were  influential  only  for  a  brief 
period  and  over  n  small  section  of  the  German 
schools 

From  the  humanistic  pedantry  a  departure 
was  made  towards  the  end  of  the  seventeenth 
century  in  the  direction  of  versatility  and 
practicality  of  social  requirements  by  the  edu- 
cational system  of  the  so-called  Ritterakademien, 
that  is,  institutions  for  the  sons  of  the  nobility. 
(See  ACADEMIES,  COURTLY.)  Here  instruction 
was  given  in  several  modern  languages  as  well 
as  a  variety  of  recent  sciences  and  many 
chivalric  and  practical  accomplishments, 
generally  in  a  cursory  and  superficial  manner. 


GERMANY 


GERMANY 


The  majority  of  these  institutions,  however, 
did  not  enjoy  a  long  existence  But  their  aims 
were  partially  and  gradually  adopted  in  the 
other  institutions  for  higher  education,  while 
even  the  educational  organizations  of  the 
Pietists  (qv)  (c  1700),  especially  the  school 
system  established  at  Halle  by  A  H  Francke 
(q  v.),  now  included  a  variety  of  real  knowledge, 
offered  an  opportunity  for  learning  different 
types  of  manual  and  industrial  occupations, 
introduced  easier  methods  to  facilitate  the 
learning  of  Latin,  made  room  for  exercises  in 
the  vernacular,  and,  as  is  to  be  expected,  made 
religious  and  moral  education  the  mam  object 
From  this  point  Real  schools  were  developed 
since  about  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury, the  earliest  of  which  in  a  modified  and 
improved  form  still  continues  to  exist  m  Berlin. 
(See  HECKER  )  The  pedagogy  of  the  Pietists 
equally  promoted  opinion  in  favor  of  the  right 
of  the  lower  classes  to  education 

After  compulsory  school  attendance  had 
already  been  introduced  in  the  seventeenth 
century  in  some  of  the  small  Thurmgian  states, 
as,  e  g  in  Saxe-Gotha,  such  compulsion  was 
definitely  imposed  from  1713  in  the  rising  state 
of  Prussia  by  the  energetic,  yet  reckless  king, 
Frederick  William  I  Under  his  greater  suc- 
cessor, Frederick  the  Great  (q  v  ),  the  ele- 
mentary school  made  hardly  any  progress. 
There  was  a  feeling  for  a  long  tune  that  duties 
of  an  elementary  school  teacher  should  be 
intrusted  to  anybody  of  the  most  modest 
personal  education,  such  as  artisans,  or  non- 
commissioned mihtarv  officers,  while  instruc- 
tion was  limited  to  the  elements  of  reading, 
writing,  and  arithmetic  and  questions  on  the 
Catechism  The  view  that  religious  knowl- 
edge or  even  only  .verbal  formulae  are  a  guar- 
antee for  Christian  feeling  and  God-fearing 
conduct  was  only  gradually  superseded,  or 
perhaps  has  riot  vet  altogether  disappeared 
The  first  actual  normal  school  was  established 
towards  the  end  of  the  reign  of  Frederick  the 
Great  at  Halberstadt  in  1778,  and  that  through 
the  efforts  of  a  private  person,  the  noble  phi- 
lanthropist and  friend  of  youth,  Eberhard  von 
Rochow  (q  v  ),  who  found  a  supporter  of  his 
principles  in  the  Minister  of  State,  Freiherr  von 
Zedlitz  (q  v  ),  whose  highly  meritorious  activity 
was  devoted  to  the  perfection,  internally  arid 
externally,  of  the  whole  public  educational 
system.  Both  men  were  influenced  by  the  new 
spirit  of  Philanthropmism  (q  v  )  which  m  its 
turn  had  partly  been  aroused  by  Rousseau 
(q.v ),  but  in  several  points  had  deviated 
widely  from  his  views  With  a  new  view  of 
the  aims  and  means  of  education  not  only  the 
founder  of  the  movement,  J  B  Basedow 
(q.v.),  established  an  institution  at  Dessau, 
styled  the  Philanthropmum  (1774),  but  a  num- 
ber of  similar  institutions  followed,  and  there 
was  no  lack  of  active  followers  (See  CAMPE, 
SALZMANN,  etc  ).  With  Rousseau  they  shared 
the  belief  in  the  original  goodness  of  human 

VOL.    1X1  —  F  65 


nature;  they  desired  to  subordinate  the  im- 
portance of  instruction  to  that  of  an  education 
for  other  valuable  qualities,  recognized  the 
natural  rights  of  youth,  and  hoped  to  dispense 
almost  entirely  with  pressure,  compulsion,  and 
punishments  In  the  spirit  of  the  time  they 
saw  m  happiness  the  true  end  of  all  human 
education.  Quite  in  opposition  to  Rousseau, 
however,  they  always  thought  of  the  ability 
of  their  pupils  in  reference  to  the  enlarged 
society,  arid  social  usefulness  was  to  be  com- 
bined with  happiness  Throughout  they  also 
stood  for  authority  and  obedience  But  while 
they  turned  all  learning  to  play,  swept  away 
all  real  difficulties  from  before  their  pupils, 
were  satisfied  with  all  kinds  of  superficial 
knowledge,  were  willing  to  stimulate  by  a  sys- 
tem of  external  rewards,  they  m  no  way  pro- 
moted true  character-formation,  and  called 
out  the  strongest  opposition,  while  their  in- 
stitutions only  attained  a  slight  importance 
It  must  at  once  be  said,  however,  that  several 
of  their  principles  have  recently  again  come  to 
the  front  and  receive  wide  recognition 

The  most  determined  opponents  of  the  Phi- 
lanthropmists  were  the  representatives  of  the 
New  Humanism,  who  then  won  a  decisive 
influence  over  the  organization  of  higher  edu- 
cation, which  continued  for  a  long  time  (See 
NEO-HUMANISM  )  The  earliest  leaders  in  this 
movement,  including,  from  about  1730  on, 
J.  M  Gesner,  Ernesti,  Heyne  (qqv),  also  had 
their  broad  pedagogic  convictions  and  desired  to 
win  over  the  student  body  by  beauty  of  content 
in  the  subject-matter,  that  is,  essentially  the 
classical  antiquities  From  this  time  on,  it 
remained  the  program  of  the  new  humanistic 
educators  to  inspire  enthusiasm  for  the  lan- 
guage, literature,  thought,  and  character  of 
antiquity,  and  to  promote  the  moral  develop- 
ment of  their  pupils  by  the  study  of  a  no- 
bler human  type  In  this  attitude  the  great 
poets,  as  for  example,  Herder  (q  v  ),  were  either 
in  agreement  with  or  even  anticipated  the 
philologians,  as  Fr  August  Wolf  or  Fnedr 
Thiersch  Influential  statesmen,  top,  adopted 
the  same  views,  and  a  particular  instance  is 
William  von  Humboldt  (q  v  ),  who  about  1810 
directed  the  Prussian  educational  system, 
and  together  with  several  important  councillors 
exercised  the  decisive  influence  in  the  organiza- 
tion of  the  gymnasiums  And  yet  the  philo- 
logically  trained  teachers,  to  whom  instruc- 
tion in  the  classics  was  intrusted,  failed  in  the 
subsequent  period  to  arouse  that  expected 
enthusiasm,  since  they  restricted  their  pupils 
too  much  to  the  linguistic  difficulties.  Nor 
could  the  view  that  the  ancients  presented  the 
highest  type  of  humanity  be  maintained  accord- 
ing to  the  modern  conception  of  Greek  and 
Roman  antiquity 

Equally  significant  was  the  influence  exer- 
cised on  lower  education  in  Germany  at  about 
this  time  (1800)  by  the  great-hearted  Swiss, 
Pestalozzi  (q  v.).  His  efforts,  although  applied 


GERMANY 


GERMANY 


only  in  small  private  undertakings,  were  very 
soon  recognized  and  fully  appreciated  by  rep- 
resentatives of  the  Prussian  state  and  were 
adopted  as  the  standard  for  the  internal  organi- 
zation of  their  elementary  schools.  With  this 
there  began  not  only  a  new  and  better  period 
for  these  schools,  not  only  were  their  services 
increasingly  valuable,  not  only  did  the  new 
and  idealistic  class  of  elementary  school 
teachers  arise  in  the  one  state,  but  this  state, 
Prussia,  where  at  the  same  time  that  new  class 
of  high  school  teachers  had  arisen,  acquired  a 
position  as  leader  and  guide  of  Germany, 
while  Germany  itself  in  the  subsequent  period 
stood  out  as  the  country  of  the  most  intensive 
pedagogical  interests  and  the  most  consistent 
educational  organization.  Many  differences 
remained  in  the  last  few  centuries  between 
North  and  South,  and  particularly  between 
Protestant  and  Catholic  territories,  but  in  the 
educational  sphere  there  gradually  appeared  a 
satisfactory  assimilation.  The  Roman  Catholic 
Church,  indeed,  has  never  ceased  to  claim 
all  school  education  for  herself  and  her  min- 
isters, and  the  German  governments  have  never 
ceased  to  admit  to  the  Christian  churches  a 
right  to  share  within  well-defined  limits  in 
the  supervision  of  the  schools  and  to  utilize 
the  assistance  of  their  representatives  But 
on  the  whole  the  schools  have  more  and  more 
become  a  matter  for  the  state  alone,  even  in 
cases  where  the  maintenance  and  direct  sup- 
port were  undertaken  by  individual  com- 
munities. 

The  external  organization  of  the  lower  as 
well  as  the  higher  schools  (the  latter  being 
styled  in  South  Germany  "  middle  schools  " 
with  reference  to  the  Universities  which  are 
the  real  "  high  schools ")  continued  in  the 
course  of  the  nineteenth  century  to  be  carried 
on  predominantly  on  the  plan  that  typical 
forms  must  so  far  as  possible  be  made  univer- 
sally binding,  with  the  result  that  flexibility  in 
the  individual  schools,  teachers,  and  even  pupils 
was  temporarily  checked  It  is  noticeable, 
however,  how  this  whole  tendency  is  gradually 
giving  place  since  the  last  century  to  another 
which  is  opposed  to  it  The  number  of  edu- 
cators who  took  part  in  perfecting  the  system 
has  always  been  great  at  this  period  and  the 
investigation  for  better  methods  has  scarcely 
ceased  for  a  single  moment  The  strongest 
impulse  in  this  direction  was  afforded  by  Her- 
bart's  (q.v.)  pedagogy  (first  published  in  1806), 
even  though  his  psychological  principles  have 
been  shattered  since  then  and  their  too  mechan- 
ical formulation,  which  was  the  work  of  his 
disciples,  especially  Ziller  (q.v.),  is  at  present 
being  attacked  or  rejected  on  all  sides.  But 
the  careful  research  into  the  teaching  and 
learning  processes  which  since  that  time  is  be- 
ing pursued  with  still  greater  psychological 
thoroughness  is  the  undoubted  contribution  of 
this  great  educator 

So  far  as  the  further  development  of  the 


66 


external  organization  is  concerned  the  ele- 
mentary schools  with  universal  compulsory 
attendance  have  not  only  been  increased  from 
decade  to  decade,  but  have  been  more  care- 
fully articulated  into  classes,  the  hitherto  poor 
material  conditions  of  the  teachers  have  been 
improved,  the  training  of  teachers  in  numerous 
normal  schools  and  the  preparatory  institu- 
tions preceding  them  have  been  perfected,  and 
a  large  variety  of  schools  for  pupils  deficient 
in  some  personal  equipment  have  been  erected. 
New  cultural  subjects  have  been  added  to  the 
simple,  traditional  elements  in  the  curriculum 
of  the  ordinary  elementary  schools,  and  in 
recent  years  the  care  for  the  further  education 
of  pupils  from  the  age  of  fourteen,  the  leaving 
age  for  the  elementary  school,  up  to  sixteen  or 
eighteen,  is  a  matter  of  considerable  discussion 
and  experimentation  Attendance  at  continua- 
tion schools  has  already  been  made  compulsory 
in  many  places,  since  intellectual  and  moral 
neglect,  particularly  at  this  age,  is  fraught  with 
much  danger  to  national  life. 

For  higher  education  it  was  particularly  sig- 
nificant that  the  transition  from  the  gym- 
nasium, which  had  gradually  increased  to  nine 
classes,  to  the  university  was  since  the  end  of 
the  eighteenth  century  (1788  in  Prussia)  made 
dependent  on  an  exacting  leaving  examination 
(Matuntatsprufung)  and  has  so  remained. 
Further,  there  was  introduced  a  difficult  ex- 
amination pro  facilitate  docendi  (1810  in  Prus- 
sia) which  called  into  existence  a  well-defined 
and  trustworthy  profession  of  high  school 
teachers  For  the  supervision  of  the  teachers 
and  administration  of  school  affairs  the  gov- 
ernment bodies  established  their  own,  purely 
state  authorities,  as  for  example  the  Ober- 
Schul-Kollegium,  since  1825  Provinzial-Schul- 
Kollegien  (Provincial  School  Boards)  with  a 
comparative  amount  of  independence  under 
the  Minister  of  Instruction  Lastly,  certain 
state  privileges,  especially  the  right  to  one- 
year  service  in  the  army  (emjahnger  Mill- 
tardienst),  were  attached  to  attendance  at  cer- 
tain types  of  the  higher  schools  That  this 
last  provision  contributed  largely  to  uplift 
general  education  in  the  nation  is  undeniable. 
It  embodies,  moreover,  a  democratic  principle, 
since  no  distinction  of  rank  or  wealth  is  con- 
sidered in  connection  with  that  privilege, 
which  may  be  attained  by  any  person  through 
individual  merit 

The  curriculum,  the  selection  of  subjects, 
the  amount  of  time  to  be  devoted  to  each  in 
each  grade,  the  regulation  for  the  decisive 
examinations,  have  all  naturally  been  frequently 
revised  and  altered  in  the  course  of  time,  as 
changes  in  the  sciences,  cultural  life,  and  needs 
of  the  time  demanded.  The  last  regulation  of 
the  courses  of  study  in  Prussia  dates  from 
1901.  The  other  German  states  approximate 
Prussia  in  their  organization  A  controversy 
extending  over  several  decades  centered  round 
the  relation  of  the  Real  schools  (that  is,  schools 


GERMANY 


GERMANY 


with  a  modern  curriculum,  modern  languages, 
natural  sciences,  etc )  to  the  schools  which 
had  their  origin  in  the  humanistic  period,  the 
gymnasiums;  although  these  have  in  the 
course  of  time  adopted  subjects  of  more  modern 
content,  they  are  particularly  marked  by  their 
serious  study  of  Greek  as  well  as  Latin,  having 
recently  dropped  the  early  rhetorical-stylistic 
aim  of  the  study  of  Latin  Real  institutions, 
with  an  equally  long  curriculum  of  nine  years, 
were  first  recognized  in  Prussia  as  Realschulcn 
I.  Ordnung,  or  Realgymnasien  Since  1901  the 
Gymnasium,  the  Realgymnasium,  and  the  Ober- 
realschule,  with  a  Latinless  nine-year  course, 
receive  fundamentally  the  same  recognition 
All  these  types  of  schools  are  regarded  as 
general  educational  institutions  rather  than  as 
preparatory  schools  for  any  special  professional 
course,  and  the  ever-increasing  simpler  Real- 
xchulen,  with  a  six- year  course  for  pupils  be- 
tween nine  and  fifteen,  show  the  same  tendency. 
It  is  especially  difficult  for  Germans  to  think 
of  any  educational  ideal  that  is  not  general  and 
valuable  in  itself  The  utilitarian  standpoint 
meets  with  only  slight  recognition  anywhere 
Hence  the  formal  side  of  education  is  regarded 
as  more  important  than  the  material  equip- 
ment for  life,  while  linguistic  and  grammatical 
instruction  has  ceased  to  be  regarded  as  the 
sole  means  for  developing  the  powers  of  the 
pupils 

All  the  higher  schools  in  common  pursue 
with  the  same  objects  the  study  of  German 
(linguistic  and  literary)  and  history,  while 
religious  instruction  is  everywhere  obligatory. 
It  is  demanded  in  certain  quarters  that  the 
last  should  be  left  to  the  religious  corporations, 
but  the  feeling  neither  of  the  authorities  nor  of 
the  teachers  is  favorable  to  such  a  view 

The  multiplicity  of  institutions  for  instruc- 
tion and  education  has  increased  rapidly  m  the 
last  decade  The  increasingly  popular  Reform 
Schools,  with  the  postponement  of  Latin  by 
several  years,  arc  only  one  type  Although 
coeducation  of  boys  and  girls  has  up  to  the 
present  not  been  introduced  in  most  German 
states,  the  question  of  an  equal  and  compre- 
hensive education  of  the  female  youth  has  been 
seriously  discussed  and  curricula  and  courses 
of  study  have  recently  been  prepared  to  meet 
the  situation,  so  that  this  side  of  national 
education  seems  to  have  a  brilliant  future 
Another  entirely  recent  tendency  is  the  reestab- 
lishment  of  boarding  schools  (Internale,  Alu in- 
nate) to  be  connected  with  the  higher  schools, 
or  at  least  to  adopt  their  curricula  and  to  bear 
a  different  character  from  the  earlier  boarding 
schools  of  an  institutional  character  or  the 
French  Iyc6es  Most  of  these  institutions  up 
to  the  present  are  private  undertakings  But 
all  private  establishments  for  education  and 
instruction  are  under  state  supervision  The 
idea  of  national  education  must  outweigh  that 
of  individual  education.  Individual  powers 
must  be  developed,  but  at  the  same  time 


altogether  in  the  interests  of  the  nation  as  a 
whole. 

And  nationalism  no  longer  means  the  obsti- 
nate and  unquestioning  acceptance  of  tradi- 
tional peculiarities  Attention  is  in  recent 
years  being  frequently  directed  to  foreign 
countries  and  the  good  points  in  England  and 
America  m  particular  arc  studied  with  a  view 
to  some  extent  to  their  adoption  Thus  some 
experiments  have  been  made  in  self-govern- 
ment of  pupils  A  wider  power  of  election  is 
to  be  permitted  to  students,  at  any  rate  in  the 
upper  classes  of  the  higher  schools  Bv  the 
side  of  gymnastics,  which  have  long  ago  found 
a  home  in  Germany,  athletics  and  manual  in- 
struction have  been  increasing  But  caution 
and  discretion  in  the  recognition  and  adoption 
of  now  ideas  remains  the  principle  with  educa- 
tional authorities  in  Germany  Hence  they 
have  rarely  been  compelled  to  retrace  their 
steps 

There  has  been  no  lack  of  alternation  be- 
tween more  liberal  and  more  conservatu  e 
points  of  view  in  the  last  century  At  times 
some  very  reactionary  measures  were  in  force, 
as  in  1850,  for  the  training  of  elementarv 
school  teachers,  while  at  the  present  moment 
from  the  socialistic  standpoint  \erv  revolu- 
tionary demands  are  being  made  Hence  the 
proposal  for  a  uniform  school  (Emhcitfischule), 
with  one  and  the  same  foundation  equallv 
obligatory  on  all  children  of  the  nation,  and 
the  free  access  to  all  educational  institutions 
for  the  able,  —  demands  against  which  strong 
reasons  have  been  brought  On  the  other  Hide 
an  attack  is  made  on  class  instruction  which 
favors  only  the  mediocre,  and  special  schools 
are  now  and  then  demanded  for  the  specially 
gifted  m  order  to  create  a  national  dite 

To  hold  that  the  German  system  is  at  a 
standstill,  or  to  form  the  idea  of  a  rigid  organ- 
ism from  isolated  impressions  or  exaggerated 
judgments,  it  must  again  be  emphasized,  would 
be  particularly  unjustifiable  It  is  merely 
that  the  present  advance  is  less  noisy  than 
elsewhere  The  protests  against  present  con- 
ditions, which  at  the  moment  are  raised  ex- 
citedly in  certain  quarters  and  especially  m  the 
daily  press,  are  going  too  far.  With  unfounded 
optimism  there  is  talk  of  the  value  of  un- 
checked, unregulated  development  of  the  im- 
mature person,  while  the  effect  of  the  present 
system  is  regarded  with  unjustified  pessimism 
Confidence  in  these  schools,  whose  value  was 
previously  accepted  without  question,  has  dis- 
appeared because  families  were  too  long  kept 
at  a  distance  from  them,  and  the  establishment 
of  confidential  relations  between  teachers,  par- 
ents, and  scholars  forms  one  of  the  greatest 
tasks  of  the  future  On  the  other  hand  criticism 
is  frequently  due  to  the  subjective  instability 
and  nervous  discontent  of  educated  people  of 
to-day,  and  serious  charges  are  brought  against 
j) resent  education  in  the  family  But  each 
individual  thinks  that  he  ought  to  judge  of  the 


67 


GERMANY 


GERMANY 


scope  of  education  on  a  basis  of  disposition, 
casual  experience,  and  ideas  of  the  moment 

It  must,  however,  be  recognized  that  the  task 
of  the  future  is  to  provide  for  the  introduction 
of  the  field  of  educational  science  more  gen- 
erally in  the  highest  educational  institutions, 
the  training  grounds  for  the  most  intensive 
thinking  (See  EDUCATION,  STUDY  OF.)  At 
the  same  time  it  is  regarded  as  an  equally  im- 
portant need  of  the  educational  system  to  place 
a  professional  expert  at  the  head  of  the  whole 
department  which  up  to  the  present  has  been 
under  a  Minister  merely  as  one  section  of  his 
work  But  that  desires  are  unfulfilled  and  that 
important  demands  for  the  future  remain,  is 
not  a  sign  of  an  actual  standstill.  The  great 
problem  of  education  is  always  unending  and 
ever  gives  rise  to  new  questions.  That  the 
highest  object  must  under  all  circumstances  be 
the  training  of  the  will  is  self-evident.  But  by 
which  system  this  can  best  be  attained  may  be 
left  as  a  subject  of  competition  between  the 
nations  W.  M 

PRESENT  SYSTEM.  — As  in  America,  the 
control  of  education  is  constitutionally  in  the 
hands  of  the  individual  states  and  is  almost 
entirely  removed  from  the  imperial  or  federal 
government  The  Imperial  Chancellor,  as 
representative  of  the  Empire,  has  only  the 
right  of  defining  the  qualifications  Tor  the  priv- 
ilege of  the  one-year  service  in  the  army  and 
to  bestow  to  individual  schools  the  right  of 
granting  such  certificates  For  this  purpose 
he  is  supported  by  the  Imperial  School  Corn- 
mission,  consisting  of  about  seven  members  as 
representatives  of  different  states,  and  holding 
a  short  business  meeting  usually  once  a  year. 
Its  functions  are  inconsiderable  The  Cadet 
Corps,  which  always  include  a  higher  school, 
are  under  the  control  of  the  Emperor  as 
supreme  head  in  military  affairs  Thus  there 
is  no  uniform  and  unifying  imperial  authority 
in  German  school  affairs,  and  the  German 
educational  system  is  far  more  varied  than 
appears  to  a  foreigner  on  a  brief  visit.  The 
extent  of  this  diversity  cannot  be  wholly  pre- 
sented in  this  account,  which  will  be  devoted 
primarily  to  a  survey  in  outline  of  the  school 
system  of  the  largest  federal  state,  Prussia, 
and  only  incidentally  to  that  of  other  states. 
Further,  Germany  does  not  possess  a  bureau 
of  information  such  as  the  United  States 
Bureau  of  Education,  and  it  is  difficult  or  even 
impossible  to  afford  a  complete  description  of 
the  present  situation 

While  in  America  there  is  an  educational 
ladder  leading  directly  from  the  primary  school 
to  the  university,  no  German  state  has  a  uni- 
form school  system  in  this  sense  On  the  con- 
trary, two  systems  must  be  constantly  distin- 
guished, the  lower  or  elementary  school  system 
and  the  higher  school  system.  A  transference 
from  one  to  the  other  is  only  possible  at  one 
point,  viz.  after  the  third  or  fourth  school 
year.  All  other  types  of  schools  or  curricula 


68 


are  connected  more  or  less  closely  with  these 
two. 

Legislative  Principles.  ~  As  will  have  been 
noticed  above  an  imperial  educational  code 
does  not  exist,  although  the  Imperial  Law  on 
Child  Labor  in  industrial  occupations,  March 
30,  1903,  refers  indirectly  to  education.  In 
addition  there  are  agreements  between  the  fed- 
eral states  for  the  mutual  recognition  of  exam- 
inations, particularly  the  Abitunentenexamen 
(q.v.)  for  entrance  to  the  universities  These 
agreements,  which  have  been  entered  into  by  a 
majority  of  the  states,  have  at  any  rate  in  higher 
education  as  unifvmg  an  effect  as  imperial  laws, 
much  in  the  same  way  as  the  College  Entrance 
Requirements  Board  in  America 

In  the  individual  states  education  is  regulated 
either  through  a  comprehensive  education  code 
(Schulgesetz) ,  as  m  Saxony  and  Wiirttemberg, 
in  which  case  the  lower  and  higher  systems  are 
generally  treated  in  separate  laws  and  occasion- 
ally only  one  system  is  dealt  with  uniformly; 
or  the  most  important  sections  are  embodied 
in  special  laws  while  the  rest  is  supplemented 
by  the  government  through  ordinances,  as 
particularly  in  Prussia.  But  with  the  rapid 
and  progressive  development  of  Germany,  even 
where  uniform  educational  laws  exist,  special 
laws  and  various  ordinances  are  necessary  to 
adapt  the  school  system  to  the  changing  con- 
ditions Elementary  education  is  based  on 
laws  more  than  higher  education,  which  more 
frequently,  and  especially  in  Prussia,  is  regu- 
lated by  ordinances  The  following  questions 
are  the  subjects  of  legislative  enactment  in 
almost  all  the  states,  the  training,  appointment, 
and  conditions  of  service  of  the  teachers,  their 
pay,  pensions,  and  provision  for  their  depend- 
ents, the  maintenance  of  schools,  school  in- 
spection and  attendance,  as  well  as  the  denomi- 
national organization  of  schools 

Prussia  has  no  school  code  The  legislative 
foundations  of  her  school  system,  apart  from  a 
few  earlier  regulations  for  individual  sections 
of  the  kingdom,  are  contained  m  Articles  20-25 
of  the  Constitution  of  January  31,  1850,  which 
run  as  follows:  — 


(20)  Knowledge  and  its  dissemination  are  free  (21)  Satis- 
factory provision  for  the  education  of  youth  shall  be  made 
through  public  schools  Parents  and  their  representatives 
must  not  allow  their  children  or  wards  to  be  without  such  in- 
struction as  is  prescribed  for  the  public  elementary  schools 

(22)  Every  one  is  free  to  give  instruction  and  establish  educa- 
tional institutions,  provided  he  has  proved  his  moral,  intellec- 
tual and  professional  fitness  to  the  proper  state  authorities 

(23)  All  public  and  private  educational  institutions  are  subject 
to  the  inspection  of  authorities  appointed  by  the  state.     Public 
teachers  have  the  rights  and  duties  of  civil  servants      (24)  In 
the  organization  of  public  elementary  schools  denominational 
conditions  must  be  considered  so  far  as  possible      Religious 
instruction  in  the  elementary  schools  is  under  the  direction 
of   the   religious   corporations   concerned      The   management 
of  the  external  affairs  of  the  public  schools  is  m  the  hands  of 
the  community.     The  state  with  the  legally  regulated  participa- 
tion of  the  communities  appoints  teachers  from  a  list  of  suit- 
able candidates      (25)  Funds  for  the  erection,  maintenance, 
and  extension  of  public  schools  are  raised  by  the  communities, 
and  where  inability  to  do  so  is  proved  the  state  may  give  sup- 
plementary aid      The  duties  of  third  parties  based  on  special 
titles  remain  as  before      The  state  guarantees  the  teachers  a 
fixed  income  according  to  local  circumstances.     Instruction  in 
public  elementary  schools  is  free 


GERMANY 


GERMANY 


In  addition  the  Law  for  the  Maintenance  of 
Public  Elementary  Schools  of  July  28,  1906, 
which  includes  far  more  than  the  title  implies, 
is  of  importance  Its  contents  are  as  follows: 
(1)  Maintenance  of  schools.  (2)  Distribution  of 
the  cost  of  elementary  schools;  maintenance  of 
the  schoolhouse;  building  fund;  state  sup- 
port. (3)  School  property;  aid  from  other 
sources.  (4)  Denominational  conditions  (5) 
Administration  of  elementary  school  affairs 
and  appointment  of  teachers  (For  the  foreign 
observer  sections  (4)  and  (5)  are  particularly 
noteworthy  ) 

Higher  education  in  Prussia  is  regulated  by 
ordinances  or  decrees  of  the  Minister  or  through 
the  supreme  decree  of  the  King,  while  Saxony, 
for  example,  has  a  law  also  for  higher  education. 
(See  Lexis,  Vol  III,  p  65;  Von  Bremen; 
Morsch  ) 

Administration  of  Education  —  Central  Au- 
thorities —  The  supreme  direction  of  the  inter- 
nal organization  of  the  schools  is  in  all  the  states 
in  the  hands  of  state  authorities;  in  Prussia 
this  is  provided  by  Article  23  of  the  Constitution 
mentioned  above  This  power  no  longer  rests 
as  previously  with  the  church,  nor,  as  is  gen- 
eral in  America,  with  the  local  communities 
In  no  state  has  there  yet  been  developed  a  cen- 
tral authority  whose  only  concern  LS  school 
matters  Generally  public  worship,  occasion- 
ally a  still  wider  sphere  of  duties,  as,  for  ex- 
ample, justice  in  Baden,  are  under  the  charge 
of  the  same  minister;  sometimes,  as  in  Hesse, 
education  falls  to  the  share  of  the  Minister 
of  the  Interior;  a  simpler  organization  is,  of 
course,  possible  in  the  smaller  states  (Hesse  has 
a  little  over  one  million  population). 

The  highest  authority  in  Prussia  is  the  Min- 
istry for  Public  Worship  and  Education;  m 
Bavaria  the  Ministry  of  the  Interior  for  Public 
Worship  and  Education;  in  Wurttcmberg  the 
Department  for  Ecclesiastical  and  School  Af- 
fairs. When  the  Prussian  ministry  became 
independent  in  1817,  it  was  still  quite  possible 
to  supervise  the  whole  field  assigned  to  it  This 
is  no  longer  possible  at  present,  and  since  1911 
the  Department  for  Public  Health  has  become 
a  separate  body,  while  the  demand  for  a  sepa- 
rate Ministry  for  Education  is  constantly  be- 
coming stronger  At  the  head  of  this  office 
stands  the  Minister,  usually  called  Kultusmm- 
ister,  who  is  supported  by  the  Under-Secretary 
as  his  deputy  The  ministry  is  divided  into 
three  departments:  (1)  Department  for  ecclesi- 
astical affairs.  (2)  First  department  for  educa- 
tion (higher  and  girls'  schools)  (3)  Second 
department  for  education  (elementary  schools). 
A  ministerial  director  stands  at  the  head  of  each 
department.  Further  there  are  attached  to  the 
office  from  thirty  to  thirty-five  special  council- 
lors and  from  ten  to  fifteen  assistants.  The 
majority  of  these  officials  so  far,  always  includ- 
ing the  Minister  himself,  are  jurists  or  adminis- 
trative officials.  The  organization  in  the  other 
states  is  much  simpler.  In  several  of  these,  as 


in  Bavaria  and  Baden,  almost  all  the  councillors 
are  jurists  In  addition  to  the  routine  adminis- 
trative duties  various  conferences  take  place  m 
the  ministry,  at  which  questions  are  determined 
not  by  majority  vote,  but  by  the  decision  of  the 
presiding  official  Responsibility,  however,  is 
formally  borne  by  the  Minister,  to  whose  notice 
important  matters  are  accordingly  brought  for 
his  personal  decision  Since  the  Minister  can- 
not supervise  the  details  of  his  wide  field,  and  fre- 
quently has  not  the  necessary  acquaintance  with 
persons  or  the  professional  knowledge,  an  ex- 
traordinarily wide  influence  is  often  exercised 
by  the  experienced  directors,  although  the  scope 
of  their  duties  is  entirely  dependent  on  the  will 
of  the  Minister  As  an  instance  may  be  men- 
tioned the  late  Fr  Althoff  (q  v  )  Where  wider 
changes  are  contemplated,  the  Minister  sum- 
mons a  consultative  conference  to  which  leaders 
m  all  walks  of  life  are  invited  Such  confer- 
ences, for  example,  took  place  in  1907  on  the 
reform  of  the  education  of  girls,  as  well  as  m 
1890  and  1900  on  the  reform  of  higher  educa- 
tion. 

Intermediate  Authorities  —  In  the  larger  Ger- 
man states  there  are  between  the  central  board 
and  the  individual  schools  state  intermediate 
boards,  which,  although  differing  everv whore 
in  composition  and  functions,  always  have  the 
constitution  of  boards  Examples  of  these  arc 
m  Bavaria  the  Supreme  School  Council  (Oberste 
Schulrat),  in  Wurttemberg  the  Superior  School 
Council  (Oberschulrat) ,  in  Prussia  the  Provincial 
School  Boards  ( Provinzial-Schulkollegium)  As 
a  rule  the  members  are  not  elected,  but  appointed 
by  the  central  authority,  and  number  variously 
from  five  to  ten  or  more  The  composition  of 
these  boards  shows  great  variety,  m  Bavaria 
the  board  includes  two  university  professors, 
two  professors  of  technical  high  schools,  five 
directors  of  classical  gymnasiums,  two  directors 
of  realgymriasiurns,  a  rector  of  a  real-school, 
one  superior  medical  councillor  Baden  shows 
a  similar  constitution  In  the  free  town 
of  Hamburg,  which  in  other  ways  also  pos- 
sesses a  very  peculiar  school  organization, 
there  are  lay  representatives  on  this  board  as 
well  as  on  the  communal  education  committees 
But  in  Hesse  and,  particularly,  m  Prussia, 
neither  university  professors  nor  laymen  nor 
practical  schoolmen  sit  on  this  board,  although 
a  number  of  members  have  been  in  the  teaching 
profession  The  sphere  of  duties  of  these  au- 
thorities is  as  varied  as  their  composition  In 
Bavaria  the  Superior  School  Council  has  only 
the  management  of  the  internal  affairs  of  the 
higher  schools,  while  everything  of  an  external 
character  comes  under  the  control  of  the  county 
administration  In  WUrttemberg  only  the 
higher  schools  are  under  the  intermediate 
board,  while  elementary  education  is  adminis- 
tered by  the  ecclesiastical  authorities.  In 
Baden  the  Superior  School  Council  has  charge 
of  both  higher  and  elementary  education,  in- 
cluding the  administration  of  external  as  well 


69 


GERMANY 


GERMANY 


as  internal  affairs.  In  these  states  the  inter- 
mediate authorities  are  in  intimate  relations 
with  the  ministry,  and  with  the  exception  of 
Bavaria  a  number  of  the  members  belong  to  both 
boards.  Decisions  are  reached  in  Baden  and 
Wurttemberg  by  resolution  of  the  intermediate 
authority,  but  are  subject  to  the  decision  of  the 
Minister 

The  intermediate  authorities  m  Prussia  are 
organized  on  a  different  plan  They  are  en- 
tirely separated  from  the  central  board,  and 
between  individual  institutions  and  the  central 
authority,  the  Minister,  there  are  no  direct 
business  relations  On  the  whole,  their  or- 
ganization follows  that  for  the  administration 
of  internal  affairs  The  Prussian  monarchy 
is  divided  into  twelve  provinces,  each  under  a 
president  Each  province  is  subdivided  into 
from  two  to  six  counties  under  a  county  presi- 
dent; the  office  which  administers  these  dis- 
tricts is  known  as  the  County  Government 
(Regierung).  The  county  is  further  divided 
into  town  communities,  under  a  mayor, 
and  districts  under  a  chairman  ( Landrat) ; 
these  districts  are  again  made  up  of  rural  com- 
munities under  an  overseer,  and  estates  also 
under  a  similar  official  The  duties  of  inter- 
mediate authorities  for  lower  or  public  elemen- 
tary education  are  undertaken  by  authorities 
for  internal  administration,  that  is,  the  County 
Government  (Regicrung),  a  department  of 
which  is  devoted  to  ecclesiastical  and  educa- 
tional affairs.  The  County  Government  has 
the  supervision  of  all  school  activities,  while 
external  administration  falls  to  the  share  of  the 
community  authorities  with  the  approval  and 
confirmation  of  the  county  government  The 
officials  of  the  County  Government  for  the 
inspection  of  elementary  schools  are  the  District 
School  Inspectors  (Kreuschuhnspektoren),  the 
majority  of  whom  up  to  the  present  are  clerics 
primarily  and  exercise  their  inspectorial  duties 
incidentally,  although  the  number  of  definitely 
professional  inspectors  is  gradually  increasing, 
especially  in  the  towns  Under  the  District 
School  Inspector  stands  the  Local  School  In- 
spector (Ortsschulinxpektor),  an  office  usually 
exercised  by  the  pastor  or  priest  of  the  place, 
or  by  the  principal  for  his  own  school  The 
principal  is  the  director  of  the  individual  schools, 
in  so  far  as  they  consist  of  several  classes,  and 
under  him  are  the  teachers 

The  intermediate  authorities  in  Prussia  for 
higher  education,  including  also  normal  schools 
and  preparatory  training  institutions,  and,  in 
Berlin  only,  the  elementary  schools,  are  the 
Provincial  School  Boards  already  mentioned, 
of  which  there  are  twelve,  one  for  each  province. 
They  are  presided  over  by  the  Chief  President 
of  the  respective  provinces,  who  is  assisted  by 
a  varying  number  of  councillors  who  have  been 
in  the  teaching  profession.  These  officials 
exercise  the  inspection  of  higher  schools,  which 
are  occasionally  visited  also  by  ministerial 
councillors.  On  the  whole,  however,  the  super- 


70 


vision  of  higher  schools  is  of  little  value,  and 
inspections  take  place  comparatively  rarely,  with 
the  result  that  each  school  enjoys  a  great  deal 
of  freedom  The  duties  of  the  Provincial 
School  Boards  are  described  as  follows  by 
Morsch  (p.  343),  and  include:  — 

(1)  All  matters  bearing  on  the  educational  aim  of  the  institu- 
tions, (2)  the  examination  of  organizations  and  statutes  of  schools 
and  educational  institutions,  (3)  the  examination  of  new  and 
the  revision  and  confirmation  of  already  existing  ordinances 
and  regulations  no  leas  than  the  provision  of  suitable  recom- 
mendations for  the  removal  of  abuses  and  defects  which  have 
crept  into  any  educational  or  school  system  ,  (4)  examination 
of  school  textbooks  in  use ,  the  decision  as  to  which  arc  to  be 
dispensed  with  or  introduced  with  the  previous  approval  of 
the  superior  ministry  ,  (5)  examination  of  new  textbooks  , 

(6)  another  and  more  influential  means  of  school  inspection  is 
the  Abitunenten-Examen,  at  which  a  commissioner  from  the 
Provincial  School  Board  is  generally  present ,  (7)  the  appoint- 
ment of  commissioners  to  hold  the  Abitunenten-Kxamen,  and 
inquiry  into  the  transactions  of  the  examination  commission 
in  the  schools ,  (S)  the  supervision,  direction,  and  inspection  of 
schools  which  lead  to  the  universities,  (0)  the  appointment, 
promotion,  discipline,  suspension,  and  dismissal  of  teachers  in 
those  institutions 

Further  to  these  boards  is  assigned  the  super- 
vision of  all  the  external  administration,  the 
finances  and  budget,  which  in  schools  main- 
tained by  communities  are  administered  locally 
Each  higher  school  is  administered  by  a  Direc- 
tor, who  is  assisted  by  the  Oberlehrer  The 
private  higher  schools,  of  which  there  are  only 
a  few,  are  subject  to  state  supervision  equally 
with  the  public  schools 

All  these  above-mentioned  authorities  are 
state  officials  In  addition  there  are  local  or 
communal  bodies,  parts  of  the  local  adminis- 
tration of  communities  Here  the  multiplic- 
ity of  deputations,  commissions,  governing 
boards,  councils,  committees,  etc  ,  is  so  great, 
and  their  constitution  so  diversified  and  fre- 
quently so  complicated,  that  any  attempt  to 
describe  them  would  be  futile,  even  if  the  ma- 
terial were  available  In  general  it  may  be 
said  that  only  the  external  administration  is  the 
business  of  the  community,  such  as  the  erec- 
tion, equipment,  and  superintendence  of  build- 
ings, the  sanitary  arrangements,  financial 
management,  rarely  the  questions  of  discipline 
in  the  schools,  although  all  these  activities 
are  always  subject  to  the  approval  of  the  su- 
perior state  boards  The  most  important  right 
of  the  Prussian  community  is  the  selection  and 
nomination  of  the  whole  teaching  body,  but 
here,  too,  the  appointment  of  every  teacher 
must  be  confirmed  by  the  state  Towns  with 
larger  systems  appoint  a  school  superintendent 
as  a  professional  adviser.  This  office  will  in- 
crease in  importance  with  the  rapid  growth 
of  German  towns,  and  the  significance  which 
such  a  position  can  attain  in  the  hands  of  an 
energetic  man  is  shown  by  the  example  of  Ker- 
schensteiner  in  Munich.  The  local  bodies  do 
not  have  the  rights  of  supervisors  over  teachers 
and  school  directors  The  higher  institutions 
of  learning  maintained  by  the  state,  of  which 
there  are  quite  a  number,  are  naturally  not 
subject  to  local  control. 

Teachers  and  Conditions  of  Service.  — 
Teachers,  whether  male  or  female,  whether  in 


GERMANY 


GERMANY 


state  or  communal  schools,  have  in  Germany 
the  position  and  character  of  civil  servants, 
whose  rights  and  duties  are  definitely  laid  down 
by  general  service  regulations.  Accordingly, 
they  receive  their  appointments  only  on  the 
basis  of  the  state-regulated  preparation,  of 
which  evidence  must  be  given  by  a  state  exam- 
ination (towns  have  not  the  right  to  hold  exam- 
inations); they  have  a  definite  career,  definite 
titles  which  express  their  duties  or  position 
within  the  official  organism;  their  position  is 
for  life  and  not  terminable  by  notice,  they  re- 
ceive a  definite,  annually  increasing  salary; 
they  are  entitled  by  law  to  a  definite  pension 
and  to  provision  for  their  dependents  on  their 
death  The  titles  and  career  of  teachers  in 
Prussian  elementary  schools  are  as  follows: 
immediately  on  their  appointment  they  are 
called  Teachers,  if  they  have  charge  of  a  small 
school  of  one  or  two  grades,  Principal  Teachers, 
on  appointment  after  the  appropriate  exam- 
ination to  the  direction  of  a  larger  elementary 
school,  they  are  called  Rcktor;  finally  they  can 
become  District  School  Inspectors  Up  to  the 
present  female  teachers  do  not  advance  to 
higher  positions  In  the  higher  schools  after 
the  state  examination  during  the  period  of 
preparation  the  title  is  Candidate  for  Higher 
School  Appointment,  between  the  period  of 
preparation  and  appointment  they  are  known 
ah  assistant  teachers  (Wt*xenttchafthcher  Hilfx- 
lehrer),  in  the  nineties  this  period  was  quite 
long,  often  up  to  ten  years,  but  in  recent  years 
appointment  has  followed  immediately  after 
the  preparatory  period  as  a  general  rule;  after 
appointment  they  are  called  Teachers  (Ober- 
lehrer),  of  whom  the  older  members  receive  the 
title  of  Professor,  which,  however,  does  not  carry 
with  it  any  other  duty  or  a  higher  salary  The 
teacher  may  rise  to  the  prmcipalship  of  a  higher 
school  with  the  title  of  Director  Further  they 
can  become  Provincial  School  Councillors,  or 
Special  Councillors  in  the  Ministry  A  change 
of  career,  which  is  so  frequent  among  teachers 
in  America,  is  very  rare  in  Germany  This  is 
due  to  the  many  rights  which  the  official  has 
and  acquires,  as  well  as  to  the  exclusive  and 
specialized  preparation  foi  every  profession 

Every  official  may  resign  his  position,  but 
surrenders  all  the  rights  which  go  with  it  No 
official  may  be  given  notice,  dismissed,  or  re- 
tired on  a  pension  except  after  a  disciplinary 
inquiry.  Disciplinary  courts  of  first  instance 
are  the  direct  superior  authorities  for  officials 
of  the  middle  class,  including  the  Oberlehrer, 
while  for  the  higher  officials,  including  directors, 
there  is  a  special  court  in  Berlin;  neither  of  these 
are  the  ordinary  courts  When  proceedings  are 
brought  against  an  official  merely  for  a  breach 
of  duty,  in  so  far  as  it  does  not  trespass  the 
penal  code  and  is  only  subject  to  the  superior 
authorities,  the  case  is  withdrawn  from  the 
ordinary  courts. 

The  income  of  officials  consists  usually  of 
several  items.  The  fixed  minimum  and  the 


increments  make  up  the  salary  proper;  to  these 
must  be  added  the  compensation  for  rent,  which 
varies  with  the  cost  of  living  m  different  places, 
and  occasionally  local  additions.  The  officials 
move  up  automatically  on  the  salary  scale 
according  to  years  of  service  The  salary  of 
elementary  school  teachers  is  given  in  the 
following  table  (4  20  M  -  1  dollar):  — 

INCREMENTS  AFTKR  YEARS  OF  SERVICE 

\ftcr    7        10       13       10       19       22       25       28       31 
years  of  service 

Minimum 

Salary 

1400  M         200     200     250     250     200     200     200     200     200 
Total  salary  1600  1800  2050  2300  2500  2700  2900  3100  3300 

The  compensation  for  rent,  which  is  additional, 
amounts  to  from  200  to  800  M  ,  and  the  local 
additions,  in  towns  of  over  10,000  population, 
up  to  900  M  ,  so  that  the  highest  possible  in- 
come is  5000  M  Female  teachers  receive  a 
somewhat  lower,  middle  school  teachers  a  some- 
what higher  salary  The  salary  of  principals 
consists  of  the  same  minimum  as  that  of  teach- 
ers, i  e  1400  M  ,  to  which  is  added  from  500 
to  1000  M  more  in  virtue  of  his  position  (Amix- 
zulage),  and  a  compensation  for  rent  which  is 
more  by  25  per  cent  than  that  of  teachers,  viz 
250-1000  M  And  finally  the  salaries  of  Dis- 
trict School  Inspectors  amount  to  from  3000  to 
7200  M  ,  which  may  be  reached  in  six  stages  oi 
700  M  each  The  compensation  for  rent  is 
from  560  to  1200  M  The  compensation  for  rent 
varies  with  the  cost  of  living  in  different  towns 
In  Prussia  the  localities  are  by  law  divided  into 
five  classes  (A  to  E)  To  class  E  belong  those 
places  where  the  cost  of  living  is  lowest,  so  that 
the  rent  indemnity  is  lowest  there  Class  A 
stands  at  the  opposite  extreme  The  rent 
indemnity  is  thus  a  means  which,  keeping  the 
minimum  salary  everywhere  at  the  same  level, 
seeks  to  adapt  the  total  amount  of  income  to 
local  circumstances 

The    salary    of    teachers    m    higher    schools 
(Oberlehrer)  is  indicated  in  the  following  table : 

Salary    initial  after     3         6         9        12       15       21 

years  of  service 
2700  M  .          3400  4100  4800  5400  6000  7200 

To  this  from  560  to  1300  M  must  be  added  as 
compensation  for  rent  The  salary  of  female 
teachers  is  somewhat  lower  The  directors 
in  complete  institutions  receive. — 


Salary    initial 
0600  M 


After     3 
7200 


6     years  of  service 
7800 


The  rent  indemnity  amounts  to  from  900  to 
1800  M  The  salary  of  Provincial  School 
Councillors  is  6300  M  ,  rising  in  three  stages 
to  8000  M.,  with  a  rent  indemnity  of  from  900 
to  1800  M.  The  Special  Councillors  in  the 
Ministry  receive  7000  M.,  rising  in  three  stages 
to  11,500  M.  after  twelve  years  of  service  The 
rent  indemnity  is  2100  M 

Pensioning  of  teachers  is  dealt  with  by  the 
Prussian    Pension    Law,    Section    1:     "  Every 


71 


GERMANY 


GERMANY 


civil  servant  who  drawn  his  salary  from  the 
state  receives  from  the  same  a  pension  for  life 
when  he  is  incapacitated  for  the  performance 
of  his  duties  after  at  least  ten  years  of  service 
in  consequence  of  physical  disability  or  other 
infirmity  or  intellectual  failing,  on  account  of 
which  he  is  retired.  Where  the  incapacity  is 
due  to  illness,  wound,  or  other  accident,  with 
which  the  official  has  met  in  the  exercise  of  his 
duties  or  through  contributory  cause  with  no 
fault  of  his  own,  the  right  to  a  pension  becomes 
due  even  before  the  completion  of  ten  years 
of  service  " 

Section  7.  "  Where  an  official  is  incapac- 
itated before  the  completion  of  ten  years 
of  service  and  is  on  that  account  superan- 
nuated, except  under  circumstances  referred 
to  in  the  second  half  of  the  first  paragraph,  in 
case  of  destitution  a  pension  for  a  definite 
period  or  for  life  may  be  granted  with  the  ap- 
proval of  the  King  " 

When  an  official  is  sixty-five  years  old  the 
claim  for  a  pension  is  not  conditional  on  in- 
capacity.    The  amount  of  the  pension  is  deter- 
mined as  follows-  "Where  the  retirement  takes 
place  after  the  tenth,  but  before  the  completion 
of  the  eleventh,  year  of   service,    the    pension 
amounts  to  £J  and  rises  with  each  completed 
year  up  to  the  thirtieth  year  of  service  by  ^ 
and  thereafter  by  T^  of  the  income     But  there 
is  no  increase  beyond   f  g  of   this  income  "     In 
calculating  the  pension  the  whole  income  last 
received    inclusive   of    the    rent  indemnity    is 
used  as  a  basis;    local  additions  are  as  a  rule 
subject  to  pensions      In   1906  there  were  in 
Prussia  alone  10,02f>  teachers  from  elementary 
schools  in  receipt  of  pensions,  of   whom  8381 
were  male,  and  1644  female      The  total  amount 
of  pensions  was  15,007,764  M    (13,562,980  M 
for  male,  1,444,784   M    for  female,  teachers); 
the  average  pension  for  males   was   1618  M 
and  for  female  teachers  879  M      Widows  and 
children  of  deceased  officials  have  also  a  claim 
to  a  pension,  m  the  calculation  of  which  the 
following    provisions    are    made    in     Prussia 
"  The  amount  received  by  the  widow  is  40  per 
cent  of  the  pension    to  "which    the    deceased 
would  have    been    entitled,    if    he    had    been 
superannuated  at  the  time  of  his  death      The 
sum  for  widows  must  riot  be  less  than  300  M 
nor  more  than  3500   M      The  allowance  for 
orphans  is.  (1)  For  children,  whose  mother  is 
living  and  at  the  time   of  the   death   of  the 
official  was  entitled  to  the  widow's  allowance, 
a  fifth  of  that  allowance  for  each  child      (2) 
For  children  whose  mother  is  no  longer  alive 
or  at  the  death  of  the  official  was  not  entitled 
to  the  widow's  allowance,  a  third  of  that  allow- 
ance for  each  child      The  allowance  for  widows 
and  orphans  must  not  exceed  the  amount  of 
the  pension  to  which  the  deceased  was  entitled 
or  would  have   been  entitled  if   he  had  been 
superannuated  at  the  time  of  his  death  " 

The    conditions    treated    in    the    foregoing 
account  are  as  a  whole  similar  in  the  rest  of  the 


federal  states,  although  differing  in  details  in 
many  ways,  which  cannot  be  entered  upon 
here  It  may  be  mentioned,  however,  that 
occasionally  teachers,  as  other  officers,  have 
to  contribute  to  pension  funds,  in  which  case 
the  maximum  pension  is  usually  higher,  as  in 
Bavaria 

Arising  out  of  the  fixed  and  definite  position 
already  described  and  the  high  professional 
efficiency  due  to  the  thorough  preparation,  the 
social  standing  of  teachers  in  elementary  and 
higher  schools  is  high  For  the  same  reasons 
these  teachers  have  developed  a  strong  pro- 
fessional feeling,  even  though  it  is  at  present 
confined  to  each  grade  respectively.  Just  as 
there  is  no  bridge  leading  from  the  ranks  of 
elementary  school  teachers  to  higher  school 
teachers,  so  both  regard  themselves  as  separate 
professions,  and  the  professional  organiza- 
tions of  both  work  entirely  independently  of 
each  other;  but  since  higher  and  lower  educa- 
tion are  separate  systems,  each  with  different 
problems,  this  separation  is  not  such  an  evil 

TABLE  I 


Number  of  men  m  the  army 

Without  schooling 

Per  cent  of  whole  number 


1901 

1891 

1881 

260,410 
131 
0  05 

182,827 
824 
045 

150,130 
2,332 
1  55 

TABLE    II 


School    population 

of  whom  there  were 

1  In  public  elementary  schools 

Per  cent 

2  In  other  schools 

Per  cent 

3  Temporarily    excused   from   at- 

tendance,   hut    duly    regis- 
tered 
Per  cent 

4  Not    registered    on    account    of 

physical  defects 
Per  cent 

5  Illegally  kept  away  from  school 

Per  cent 


1891 

1901 

4,464,906 

6,103,745 

3,900,655 
8736 
222,211 
408 

5,670,870 
9291 
339,017 
5  55 

312,219 
(>99 

82,638 
1  35 

9,038 
020 
20,783 
047 

10,672 
018 
548 
001 

72 


(Based  on  Lexis'  Public  Education  in  the  German  Empire, 

Attendance  —  In  all  German  states  com- 
pulsory school  attendance  prevails,  lasting 
generally  eight  years  (seven  in  Wurttemberg), 
and  beginning  with  the  sixth  year.  In  Bavaria 
there  is  compulsory  attendance  at  Sunday 
school  from  fourteen  to  seventeen  The  ex- 
tension of  school  compulsion  to  the  continua- 
tion school  (q  v  ),  that  is,  beyond  theiourteenth 
year  to  the  eighteenth,  or  up  to  entrance  into 
the  army  (which  is  in  itself  a  powerfu1  educa- 
tional institution),  has  not  yet  been  introduced 
everywhere,  but  is  earnestly  striven  for. 
Much  remains  to  be  done  in  this  field,  particu- 


GERMANY 


GERMANY 


larly  for  girls  Legal  compulsory  attendance 
is  everywhere  strictly  enforced  in  Germany, 
and  in  the  last  resort  is  secured  with  the  aid 
of  the  police  and  the  courts  Only  on  proof 
that  children  are  receiving  satisfactory  in- 
struction privately  is  exemption  from  school 
granted  Hence  the  percentage  of  illiterates 
in  Germany  is  almost  nil,  as  may  be  seen  from 
the  tables  on  page  71 

School  and  Church.  —  The  opposition  be- 
tween the  Protestant  arid  Catholic  denomina- 
tions (Germany  is  about  one  third  Catholic 
and  two  thirds  Protestant)  has  been  one  of 
the  greatest  influences  in  German  history,  and  is 
still  one  of  the  most  important  factors  m  do- 
mestic politics,  No  wonder  then  that  this  is 
reflected  in  education  The  public  higher 
schools  are  almost  wholly  interdenominational 
or  undenominational  (wmultan)',  the  lower 
schools  are  undenominational  in  only  a  few 
states,  as  in  Baden  and  Hesse,  while  the  de- 
nominational elementary  schools  exist  in  the 
largest  states,  especially  Prussia  The  most 
important  legislative  enactments  on  this  ques- 
tion read  as  follows.  "  Public  elementary 
schools  are  to  be  so  organized  that  Protestant 
children  receive  their  instruction  from  Protes- 
tant teachers,  Catholic  children  from  Catholic 
teachers  "  "  In  public  schools  with  several 
teachers,  either  only  Protestant  or  only  Catho- 
lic teachers  are  to  be  appointed  "  Finally, 
"  when  in  any  school  community,  which  has 
only  elementary  schools  staffed  with  Catho- 
lic teachers,  the  number  of  local  Protestant 
children  of  school  age  for  five  consecutive  years 
is  over  60,  or  m  towns  and  rural  communities 
of  more  than  5000  inhabitants,  over  120,  then, 
provided  that  the  legal  representatives  of  more 
than  60,  or  more  than  120  children  of  school 
age  of  the  class  mentioned,  make  recommenda- 
tions to  the  supervising  educational  authorities, 
instruction  is  to  be  arranged  in  schools  wholly 
under  Protestant  teachers,"  and  vice  versa 
Jewish  pupils  are  received  into  the*  elementary 
schools;  where  a  Jewish  community  is  large 
enough,  it  may  erect  a  separate  school,  al- 
though their  number  is  in  any  case  very  few 
In  1906  the  percentage  of  children  who  were 
in  schools  of  their  own  denomination  was  as 
follows:  — 


IN  TOWNH 

Per  cent 

Protestant       .     . 

92  20 

Catholic      .     .     . 

87  25 

Jewish    .... 

3003 

IN 


COUNTRY 


Per  cent 

0727 

91  47 
2037 


Coeducation  —  For  boys  and  girls  in  higher 
education  separate  institutions  are  provided 
almost  everywhere,  only  a  few  South  German 
states  (Baden,  Hesse,  Wurtternberg)  admitting 
girls  into  the  boys'  schools;  up  to  the  present 


this  has  not  been  done  in  Prussia  In  the  ele- 
mentary system  special  girls'  schools  or  girls' 
classes  are  provided  when  the  numbers  are 
large  enough  In  1906,  05  per  cent  of  the  ele- 
mentary school  classes  in  Prussia  were  mixed, 
containing  64  per  cent  of  ail  the  children 
There  were  40,376  separate  classes  and  75,526 
mixed  classes  In  the  towns,  of  all  the  children 
1,669,286  were  in  separate  classes  and  636,979 
in  mixed,  in  the  country,  561,537  were  in 
separate  and  3,296,596  in  mixed  classes  Thus 
m  the  towns  sepaiatc  classes,  and  in  the  coun- 
tries mixed  classes  predominate 

Cost  of  Education  —  The  maintenance  of 
elementary  schools  as  a  general  rule  falls  by 
law  on  the  communities,  the  state  enters 
only  in  case  ui  need  and  gives  assistance  only 
to  smaller  communities  The  terms  of  the 
Prussian  law  on  the  subject  are-  "  The  erection 
and  maintenance  of  public  elementary  schools 
falls,  with  the  exception  of  the  provisions  of 
this  law,  on  the  municipal  communities 

and  the  independent  districts  Communities 
(or  districts)  either  are  independent  school 
districts  or  may  be  united  for  the  maintenance 
of  one  or  more  schools  into  one  common  school 
district  (Gcsamtbdndverband)  One  community 
may  belong  to  several  union  school  distncts 
Even  when  it  forms  one  independent  school 
district,  it  may  belong  at  the  same  time  to  one 
or  more  union  districts"  (Section  1)  Ac- 
cording to  Section  7,  "  Where  the  inability  of 
a  school  district  to  raise  the  cost  of  maintain- 
ing an  elemcntarv  school  is  proved,  subsidies 
are  given  by  the  state  Furthei  the  state 
grants  to  smaller  communities  a  part  of  the  cost 
for  new  school  buildings  "  The  amount  of 
expenditures  for  the  purposes  of  elementary 
education  is  indicated  m  the  following  tables 
(from  Ktati st inches  Jahrbuch  f  d  deulschc  Reich, 
Vol  XXIX  (1908),  p  153)  — 

EXPENDITURE  FOR  PUBLIC  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOIH 
(1  Dollar  —  4  20  Marks) 


Total 

Amount  contrib- 
uted bv  the 
State 

Cost  p  >r 
Pupil  in 

States 

(in  1000  Marks) 

Marks 

1901     1     190f> 

1 

1901 

l')0(> 

1001     190<» 

Prussia 

269,417  32S.247 

73,0u6 

82,378 

48         r)i 

Bavaria 

,*9,70b  1   52,080 

14,206 

18,937 

4<>        r»"» 

Saxony 

36,548      15,364 

6,998 

10,391 

f>3        59 

WUrttemberR 

12,2651    15,809 

3,748 

5,333 

42        ,50 

Baden 

10,9991    16,033 

2,396 

4,472 

40    ,    52 

Hesse 

7,875     10,170 

2,506 

48        54 

Alsace-Lorraine 

8,869LuUi77 

2,630 

ySfOWl 

39        44 

German  Empire 

421,31^22lgffl 

122,898 

(jojgp 

47        54 

Sum  total  of  state  expenditures  of  Prussia1 
(the  expenses  of  the  communities  nob  included) 
for  public  elementary  instruction,  training  of 
elementary  school  teachers,  etc 

1  Figures  taken  from  Etat  des  Mimntenurrts  tier  geistl  ,  etc 
Angelcprnheilen,  1910 


73 


GERMANY 


GERMANY 


MARKS 
I.   Current  expenses 

Normal  schools                     11,106,232 

Preparatory  institutions                .         ...  2,247,673 

For  both  groups  to  be  added         .                   .  757,539 

Normal  school  for  gymnastics                .  333,880 

School  supervision                .                   ...  4,422,420 
Elementary  schools    .          .              .              .141,417,317 

School  for  defectives             .     .     .  304,632 

Sum  total  of  current  expenses  .  .  161,586,776 

II.  Single  expenditures  for  elementary  schools  .  6,265,440 
To  the  communities  for  education  of  negligent 

dependent  and  delinquent  children  .  6.000,000 

Instruction  in  prisons  and  jails  203,500 

Sum  total  of  single  expend  it  tires  12,468,940 


politics  also  demands  the  creation  of  such  a 
system  in  the  growing  towns,  for  this  attracts 
settlers  to  the  town  A  few  of  the  higher  schools 
are  under  royal  patronage  and  possess  consider- 
able endowments;  a  larger  number  are  main- 
tained by  the  state,  but  by  far  the  largest 
belong  to  communities  or  towns.  There  are 
comparatively  few  private  high  schools  for 
boys,  although  they  are  slowly  increasing  in 
number.  Further  details  of  the  expenditure 
for  this  branch  of  education  are  indicated  in 
the  table  on  page  75. 


EXPENDITURK  OF  STATE  AND  COMMUNITIES  FOR  PUBLIC  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS  IN  THE  ClTlEB 
AND    IN    THK    COUNTRY    IN    PRUSSIA    (iN    MARKH) 


Cities 

Country 

1896 

1906 

1896 

1906 

1.    Total  (including  building  ex- 

penses) 

83,129,558 

163,252,542 

102,787,937 

153,956,514 

Of  this  sum 

Halanes 

60,545,580 

1  1  1  ,208,768 

73,367,542 

107,670,644 

Equipment 
2      Total  contributed 

22,083,078 

52,043,774 

29,420,395 

46,285,870 

By  the  state 
By  the  communities,  etc 
3     Percentage  of  cost  contributed 

13,327,759 
67,426,515 

16,175,140 
142,621,306 

*9,6  10,836 
49,913,141 

53,095,034 
82,528,465 

By  state 

1603 

991 

3854 

35  79 

By  communities 

81  11 

87  30 

48  50 

5360 

4.    Average  cost 

Per  school 

19397 

33786 

32  23 

46  75 

Per  class 

2757 

38  11 

1(>62 

2107 

Per  child 

47 

71 

30 

40 

Per  capita  of  population 

641 

967 

544 

75i 

5     Total  income  of  teachers 

Male 

2,282,462 

81,278,964 

62,173,450 

90,587,619 

Female 
6.    Average  income  of  teachers 

8,984,671 

19,996,533 

4,120,765 

7,839,999 

Male  . 

2,029 

2,567 

1  ,357 

1  742 

Female 

1,361 

1  ,700 

1,132 

1,370 

To  the  figures  for  1906  under  No  1,  11,- 
110,091  M  ought  to  be  added;  this  sum  com- 
prises contributions  by  the  state  for  city  and 
country  schools  which  cannot  be  separated 
The  total  expenditure  for  public  elementary 
schools  for  1906  thus  amounts  in  Prussia  to 
328,319,147  M. 


The  single  expenditures  of  the  state  amounted 
to  1,408,560  M  in  1910  (Etat,  p  238);  the 
amount  spent  locally  it  is  impossible  to  give, 
but  it  was  certainly  far  larger,  since  many  new 
schools  are  being  established,  —  more  by  the 
communities  than  by  the  state. 

The  higher  education  of  girls  has  up  to  the 


COBT  OF  SCHOOL  BUILDINGS  (1906) 


Cities 

Country 

Together 

1901 

1     Current  expenses  for  public 

elementary  schools  in  1905, 

without   the   cost   of   new 

buildings,  repairs,  or  exten- 

sions 

139,354,504 

132,947,954 

283,412,549 

227,621,597 

Salaries 
Material  equipment,  etc 
2.    Cost  of  new  buildings,  repairs 

111,208,768 
28,145,736 

k  107,670,644 
25,277,310 

229,989,503 
53,464,245 

186,873,192 
40,748,405 

and  extensions  in  1905 
Amount  of  building  debt  for 

23,898,038 

21,008,560 

44,906,598 

42,296,821 

school   buildings   in   June, 

1906  .     .     . 

110,428,352 

99,499,637 

209,927,989 

155,288,394 

Figures  taken  from  Statuttisches  Jahrbuchftir  den  preusswhen  Stoat,  Vol  XXX  (1909) 


The  duty  of  maintaining  the  higher  schools 
is  not  definitely  determined  by  legislature  in 
Prussia.  So  far  as  possible  the  towns  main- 
tain their  own  secondary  schools,  and  frequently 
make  it  a  matter  of  great  pride  to  possess 
a  highly  developed  system  of  education.  Local 


74 


present  been  mainly  in  the  hands  of  private 
institutions,  the  number  of  which  will  in  con- 
sequence of  the  recent  regulations  show  a  rapid 
decline,  and  the  burden  will  fall  almost  en- 
tirely on  the  communities.  The  current  ex- 
penses of  the  state  for  these  schools  amounted 


GERMANY 


GERMANY 


SURVEY  or  THE  PBRMANENT  INCOME  AND  EXPENSES  OF  HIGHER  EDUCATIONAL  INSTITUTION*  FOB  BOYS  IN  PKUHHIA,  ACCORDING  TO 

THE    BUDOET   FOR    1910    (iN    MARKS) 


INCOME 

EXPENDITURE 

TYPES  AND  NUMBER 
or  INBTITUTIONS 

State 
Fund 

Private 
Property 

Private 
Revenue 
(Fees) 

Municipal 
Fund 

Endow- 
ment 

Total  In- 
come also 
Total  Ex- 
penditure 

Payment 
Limit 
of  Hal  an  es 

Remun- 
eration 
for  In- 
structors 

Administra- 
tion and 
Equipment 

A    5  institutions  under 

royal  patronage 

60,765 

688,235 

320,298 



147,321 

1,216,620 

556,452 

20,360 

639,808 

B    243     state-main- 

tained    institu- 

tions 

11,516,441 

773,395 

9,078,194 

1,276,092 

637,914 

20,282,030 

22.S48.327 

677,478 

2,750,23) 

C    5  institutions  main- 

tained    by     the 

atate  and  others 

in  common 

.123,995 

26,087 

261,656 

219,823 

1,787 

732,611 

572,100 

12,866 

147,744 

D    400    institutions 

maintained       by 

other  means,  but 

supported  by  the 

state  and  exclud- 

ing    institutions 

otherwise    main- 

tained 

3,105,603 

955,288 

21,173,406 

22,683,672 

965,322 

48,883,284 

38,503,040 

1,401,848 

8,888,305 

Total,  including  other 

small  sums  tor  711) 

institutions 

17,016,154 

2,443,  006 

30,833,555 

24,178,848 

1,752,346 

77,123,011 

62,560,020 

2,112,553 

12,441,437 

Average  per  school                    24,918 

3,397 

42,884 

33,628 

2,437 

107,265 

87,023 

2,038 

17,303 

Gymnasium  at  Kteglitz 
near  Berlin 



3,393 

101,618 

79,652 



184,664 

149,662 

4,060 

30,941 

The       35       municipal 

schools      in      Berlin 

(with   six    and    nine 

classes)      (See  D  )                 8,219 

35,242 

2,137,346 

3,160,755 

68 

5,341,631 

4,479,580 

337,820 

524,231 

l 

.   — 

Figures  from  Etat  des  Minister  d  geistl  etc  ,  Angel  f  d  Etatajahr  1910,  Betlage 


in  1910  to  1,079,583  M  (in  1906  only  about 
330,000  M  ),  single  expenses  are  not  yet  to  hand  , 
the  corresponding  local  expenditures  cannot 
be  given  but  were  certainly  very  considerably 
higher 

ELEMENTARY  AND  INTERMEDIATE 
EDUCATION  —  The  lower  schools  (offenthchc 
Volksschulen,  public,  common,  or  elementary 
schools)  are  wholly  public,  and  there  are  prac- 
tically no  private  schools  of  this  type  As  a  rule 
no  fees  are  charged  Instruction  begins  at 
seven  or  eight  m  summer,  and  eight  or  nine 
in  winter,  and  includes  four  or  five,  rarelv  six, 
periods  a  day.  While  the  number  of  pupils 
may  rise  to  a  maximum  of  1000  (a  figure  very 
rarely  attained),  the  minimum  number  is  small, 
and  in  remote  places  is  from  ten  to  twenty 
Separate  schools  for  boys  and  girls  are  main- 
tamed  only  in  larger  communities,  where  the 
number  of  pupils  is  large  enough  to  warrant  a 
separation,  and  this  is  the  usual  practice 
(See  above.) 

The  teachers  by  a  large  majority  are  men; 
in  1906  there  were  in  Prussia  138,216  men 
and  23,708  women  teachers  But  the  percent- 
age of  women  teachers  is  gradually  increasing. 
The  men  teachers  give  from  twenty-six  to 
thirty  or  thirty-two  lessons,  the  women  twenty- 
two  to  twenty-six  or  twenty-seven  per  week. 
The  division  of  schools  into  classes  varies  ac- 
cording to  the  size  of  a  community.  In  the 
country  single  and  two-class  schools  with  one 
or  two  teachers  are  common,  while  in  the  towns 
systems  with  eight  or  nine  classes  and  from 


twenty  to  thirty  teachers  have  been  developed 
Some  details  are  given  in  the  following  table 
(based    on    Statist    Jahrb    /    d    preu^    Staat, 
Vol    VII,  1910,  p    166)  — 


IN  THE  TOWN 

IN  THE  COUNTRY 

1806 

1006 

1800           1900 

Average  per  school  of 
Classes 

7  11 

H87 

1  04 

222 

Teaching    positions 
Children 

7  05 
41H 

002 
177 

109 

1  80 
117 

Average  per  teat  her  of 
Classes 

1  01 

008 

1  25 

1  23 

Children 

59 

53 

70 

65 

Average     number    of 
children  per  class    . 
Number  of  classrooms 

59 
30,090 

54 

42,882 

50 
50,221 

53 
59,565 

Number    of    children 

not  received  on  ac- 

count       of       over- 

crowding 

57S 

245 

18  U 

674 

75 


Curriculum  —  Such  a  variety  of  external 
conditions  is  naturally  accompanied  by  a 
variety  of  curricula  and  standards  in  the  in- 
dividual schools  The  single-class  schools  in 
which  children  of  all  ages  are  taught  together, 
cannot  perform  the  same  type  of  work  as  the 
fully  graded  school  But  all  schools  of  what- 
ever size  must  conform  to  certain  minimum 
requirements,  of  which  those  of  Baden  may 
serve  as  an  example,  similar  regulations  being 
found  in  the  other  states:  "  The  education  of 
the  elementary  school  shall  train  the  children 
up  to  be  intelligent,  religious,  and  moral  persons 
and  upright  members  of  the  community.  It 


GERMANY 


GERMANY 


must  cover  the  following  subjects:  religion, 
reading  and  writing,  German,  arithmetic, 
singing,  elements  of  geometry,  geography, 
natural  history,  and  nature  study,  and  history, 
with  physical  exercises  for  boys,  and  for  girls 
instruction  in  female  handicrafts  The  num- 
ber of  periods  per  week  shall  be  at  least  sixteen, 
and  from  the  fourth  year  on  at  least  twenty, 
with  a  maximum  of  thirty  for  any  class  " 
The  following  time-table  of  the  Berlin  ele- 
mentary schools  may  be  taken  as  representative 
of  a  large  school  system  — 

COURSE  OF  STUDY  OK  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS  AT  BERLIN 


VIII 

VII 

VI 

V 

IV 

III 

II 

I 

Religion 

3 

3 

.1 

4 

4 

4 

4 

4 

German 

8 

7 

7 

f> 

6 

6 

6 

6 

Object  lessons 

2 

2 

2 

History 

— 

— 

— 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2  (2) 

Arithmetic 

4 

4 

4 

4 

4 

4 

4  (2) 

4(2) 

Geometry 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

3  (0) 

3  (2) 

3  (2) 

Nature  study 

and  science 

— 

— 

— 

2 

2 

4 

4  (3) 

3 

Geography 

— 

— 

— 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

Drawing 

— 

1 

2(1) 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

Writing 

— 

2 

2 

2 

2 

1 

1 

1 

.Singing 

1 

1 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

Gymnastics 

2 

2 

2(1) 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

Sowing, 
noodle-work 

— 

— 

(2) 

(2) 

(2) 

(3) 

(4) 

(4) 

Total 

20 

22 

J4 

__/ 

38 
fim 

28 

(  U\\ 

.32 

,12 

32 

Lower  Stage         v     •  •*  Upper  Stage 

Middle 

Stage 

(The  figures  in  brackets  denote  deviations  m  the  girls' 
schools  ) 

The  work  of  these  schools  may  be  indicated 
by  the  scope  of  some  subjects  in  the  upper 
grades  of  a  Berlin  elementary  school  — 

Gorman     the  pupils  must  attain  to  thorough  sound- 
in  oral  and  written  use  of  the  vernacular      Com- 


plete thoroughness  in  orthography  and  the  elements  of 
grammar  are  expected  and  reached 

Arithmetic  for  Class  II  includes  the  rule  of  three, 
sums  with  compound  numbers,  proportion,  calculations 
of  everyday  life,  excluding  exchange,  discount,  and  part- 
nership, together  with  insurance  Class  I  exchange, 
discount,  and  partnership ;  comprehensive  and  final 
drill  in  calculations  of  everyday  life ;  anthmetic  and 
algebra  (except  in  girls'  schools)  ,  the  theory  of  denomi- 
nate numbers ,  algebraical  addition,  subtraction,  mul- 
tiplication, and  division  ,  proportion  ,  equations  of  the 
first  degree  with  one  or  more  unknowns 

Nature  study  (physics)  in  the  bo>s'  schools,  Class  II 
lessons  in  inorganic  chemistry  and  mineralogy,    mag- 
netism ,     electricity ,    galvanism      Class  I     completion 
of  inorganic  chemistry  ,    introduction  to  organic  chem- 
istry ,   mechanics  completed  ,   sound  arid  light      In  the 
girls'  schools,  Class  II      Lessons  in  organic  chemistry, 
especially  in  its  application  to  foodstuffs,    elements  of 
mechanics  of  solid,  liquid,  and  gaseous  bodies      Class  I 
magnetism  ,   electricity  ,  galvanism  ,  sound  ,  light 

Little  can  be  said  about  the  methods  of  in- 
struction The  teachers  are  somewhat  more 
restricted  than  m  the  high  schools,  yet  not  so 
much  as  to  crush  individuality  Closer  insight 
into  the  methods  can  only  be  secured  by  visit- 
ing the  classrooms  and  a  study  of  the  text- 
books 

The  elementary  schools  do  not  grant  any 
privileges  m  the  same  sense  as  the  higher 
schools  Some  workmgmcn's  guilds  demand 
that  then  apprentices  shall  have  completed 
the  first  class  of  the  elementary  school;  and 
such  requirements  arc  laid  down  occasionally 
in  other  occupations  The  tables  given  below, 
compiled  from  various  sources,  give  additional 
statistics  of  elementary  education  in  the  most 
important  German  states  and  the  Empire  as  a 
whole 

Special  Provisions  for  Abnormal  and  Super- 
normal Children  —  In  an  increasing  number 
of  towns  special  schools  or  classes  are  being  es- 
tablished for  the  backward  (Schwachbegabte) . 
In  1905  such  arrangements  existed  in  97  Prus- 
sian communities  with  a  school  population  of 


STATISTICS  or  GERMAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 
A     1901  or  1900,   B     1906 


Prussia 

36,756 

37,761 

2  7 

76,342            84,980 

11  3 

13,866 

17,784 

283 

Bavaria 

7,280 

7,434 

2  1 

12,184             12,559 

3  1 

2,715 

3,861 

422 

Saxony 

2,273 

2,304 

1  4 

10,003             12,068 

206 

401 

653 

628 

Wurttemborg 

2,353 

2,382 

1  2 

4,615              4,890 

60 

494 

615 

24  5 

Baden  .                     .     . 
German  Empire 

1,677 
50,187 

1,688 
60,584 

0  7 
24 

3,631     '          3,983 
124,027          137,213 

97 
106 

418 
22,513 

856 
29,384 

1048 
305 

TOTAL  NUMBER 
OF  TEACHERH 

NUMBER  OF  PUPILH 

No   OF  PUPILS 
PER  TEACHER 

PERCENTAGE  OF  MEN  AND 
WOMEN  HOLDING  FULL  TIMK 
APPOINTMENTS 

A 

R 

Increase 

Increase 

A 

p 

A 

B 

per  cent 

per  cent 

Men    Women 

Men 

Women 

Prussia 

90,208 

102,764 

139 

5,670,870 

6,164,398 

87 

63 

60 

85 

15 

83 

17 

Bavaria 

14,899 

16,420 

102 

873,399 

958,037 

97 

59 

58 

82 

18 

76 

24 

Saxony 

10,404 

12,721 

223 

655,771 

775,098 

130 

66 

61 

96 

4 

95 

5 

Wttrttemberg 

5,109 

5.505 

78 

295,325 

315,778 

69 

58 

57 

90 

10 

89 

11 

Baden 
German  Empire 

4,849 
146,540 

4,039 
166,597 

195 
137 

273,149 
8,924,799 

308,884 
9,737,262 

13  1 
9  1 

67 
61 

64 

58 

90 
85 

10 
15 

82 
82 

18 
18 

76 


GERMANY 


GERMANY 


1,224,146.    The  following  table  gives  the  num- 
ber of  classes  and  pupils  specially  provided  for: 


BOYS 

GIRLS 

TOTAL 

Special     classes    m    public 
schools      
Number  of  classes  m  sepa- 
rate schools   .... 

Total     

1841 
388) 

1837 
5084 

1418 
4044 

3255 
0128 

672 

6921 

5452 

12,383 

TIME-TABLE  IN  A  SPECIAL  SCHOOL  AT  HALLE 


Subjects 

V 

IV 

III 

II 

I 

Religion 
Arithmetic 
German     .     . 
Writing 

3 

4 

9 

3 
4 
6 
2 
4 

3 
4 
6 
2 
4 

2 

4 

7 
1 

2 
4  (5) 

1 

Drawing     . 
History 
Geography 
Natural  history 

1 

1 
2 

2 
2 
2 
2 
2 

2(1) 

2 
2 
2 

Gymnastics 
Manual  work 

2 
4 

2 
4 

2 
4 

2 
4 

2 
4 

22 

26 

28 

30 

30 

The  Mannheim  system  created  by  Superin- 
tendent Sickmger  has  aroused  considerable 
attention  and  much  imitation  It  not  only 
provides  for  schools  for  backward,  but  also 
attempts  to  provide  special  means  for  the 
education  of  the  very  bright  and  gifted  pupils 
This  aim  is  attained  by  dividing  the  school 
system  not  only  vertically  into  classes,  but 
horizontally  into  various  types  of  classes  and 
institutions,  and  by  assigning  children  to  dif- 
ferent schools  not  alone  according  to  the  dis- 
tricts in  which  they  live,  but  according  to  their 
ability  By  this  system  the  very  able  children 
come  after  two  years'  attendance  at  school 
into  classes  which  prepare  them  in  one  and  a 
half  years  for  the  gymnasium  Pupils  above 
the  average  have  a  richer  curriculum,  including 
a  foreign  language;  the  normal  pupils  go 
through  the  usual  eight  years'  course,  while 


the  backward  and  dull  receive  courses  of  from 
four  to  seven  years 

The  following  table  gives  a  schematic  view 
of  the  whole  system,  the  eighth  class  being 
the  lowest:  — 


HID, 
ra 


Column  .4     Regular  grades  containing  more  than  90%  of  the 

pupils 

Column  B     Grades  for  temporary  aid 
Column  C     Auxiliary  grades  or  special  schools 
Column  D      Preparatory  classes  of  high  schools 
Id  Institution  for  idiots     C  G\mnasium    Kg  Realgymnasium. 
O    Oberrealsrhule  R    Reformgymnasium 

•<— •  Regularly  promoted 
•<—  Placed  temporarily  in  separate  classes  for  individual  atten* 

tion  and  returned  to  regular  grades 

^-  --  Placed  in  special  classes  owing  to  defective  mentality 
(From  Maennel,  The  Auxiliary  Schools  of  Germany.) 


PUBLIC  MIDDLE  SCHOOLS  IN  PRUSSIA,  1901  AND  1906.    (See  p  78 ) 


Boys 

Girls 

Mixed 

Total 

1901 

1906 

1901 

1906 

1901 

1906 

1901 

1906 

Number  of  schools      .     . 

217 

202 

137 

137 

102 

120 

456 

459 

Number  of  classes 

1,605 

1,659 

1,279 

1,408 

876 

1,140 

3,759 

4,207 

Number  of  teachers 
Number  of  assistant  teachers 

1,682 
266 

1.750 
292 

1,406 
295 

1,579 
263 

895 
152 

1,212 

188 

3,983 
713 

4,544 
743 

Number  of  pupils        .     .     . 

57,082 

57,295 

47,680 

49,603 

16,371 

20,140 

73,549 

78,443 

+  96  m 

+  8  in 

+  6  m 

boys 

boys 

boys 

boys 

Current  expenses  in  marks  . 

*erU'. 

schools 
5,645,985 

girls' 
schools 
6,540,017 

boys' 
schools 
4,207,225 

5,198,082 

13,512 
girls 
2,663,421 

17,578 
girls 
4,092,858 

61,192 
girls 
12,516,631 

67,187 
girls 
15,830,957 

Average  cost  : 

per  school  

26,018 

32,376 

30,710 

37,942 

26,112 

34,107 

27,449 

34,490 

per  class     .... 

3,518 

3,942 

3,289 

3,692 

3,044 

3,590 

3,330 

3,760 

per  pupil    

99 

114 

88 

105 

89 

106 

93 

109 

77 


GERMANY 


GERMANY 


Middle  Schools  (Mittelschulen,  Biirger- 
schulen,  or  Higher  Elementary  Schools)  —  This 
type  of  schools  is  intermediate  between  the 
elementary  and  higher  schools,  and  is  distin- 
guished from  both  chiefly  in  teaching  not  more 
than  one  foreign  language  While  they  are 
very  frequent  in  the  South  German  States, 
sucn  as  Baden,  and  in  Saxony,  and  there  form 
an  important  part  of  the  school  system,  they 
are  not  so  well  developed  in  Prussia,  as  is 
indicated  in  the  table  at  bottom  of  page  77. 

It  will  be  seen  from  this  table  that  there 
are  middle  schools  for  boys,  for  girls,  and  for 
both  together  The  expenditure  on  this  type 
of  schools  is  much  less  than  for  higher  or  ele- 
mentary schools  The  reason  for  the  com- 
parative failure  of  these  schools  in  Prussia, 
although  such  an  intermediate  stage  was  really 
a  strong  necessity,  was  that  they  did  not 
convey  any  privileges  nor  prepare  for  or  articu- 
late with  the  higher  schools  Now  courses  of 
study  were,  however,  issued  in  1910  for  Middle 
Schools  which  mark  a  great  step  in  advance 
While  privileges  were  not  granted  to  these 
schools,  the  curriculum  has  been  so  arranged 
that  it  can  prepare  for  the  higher  schools 
They  comprise  nine  classes  or  years,  and  are 
based  on  the  elementary  school  in  so  far  as 
both  have  a  common  course  in  the  lower  stage 
Fees  are  charged,  but  a  suitable  number  of 
free  places  arc  maintained.  Except  in  the 
lower  stage  thoro  is  an  average  of  five  periods 
per  day  Good  pupils  may  study  a  second 
language  from  the  seventh  school  year  on  In 
principle  every  pupil  is  expected  to  take  only 
one  compulsory  subject  By  the  establish- 
ment of  minimum  and  maximum  standards, 
every  school  has  sufficient  scope  to  adapt  the 
curriculum  to  special  needs  These  arc  new 
principles  in  the  Prussian  educational  system; 
moreover  the  new  schedules  approach  much 
more  nearly  to  the  principle  of  election  and 
elasticity  than  any  other  part  of  the  system 
They  are  accordingly  given  here  m  greater 
detail. 

Training  of  Elementary  School  Teachers  — 
Special  institutions  have  been  established  for 
the  professional  training  of  teachers  for  ele- 
mentary schools,  distinct  for  males  and  females 
The  normal  schools  for  men  are  part  of  the 
elementary  school  system  Between  the  ele- 
mentary school  and  the  normal  school  there  is  an 
intermediate  school,  the  preparatory  institu- 
tion (Praparandcnanstaft).  Normal  schools 
and  preparatory  institutions  (of  which  there  are 
at  present  only  a  very  few  for  girls)  are  usually 
residential  institutions  (Internate).  The  prepar- 
atory institutions  are  cither  attached  to  or  sep- 
arated from  the  normal  schools  proper  They 
receive  pupils  from  the  elementary  schools  at  the 
age  of  fourteen  and  keep  them  for  three  years.  At- 
tendance at  the  preparatory  institution  is  not  a 
requirement  for  entrance  to  the  normal  school, 
arid  candidates  may  prepare  privately,  but  must 
show  by  examination  "  that  they  have  attained 


*2 

I 

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the  knowledge  and  ability  specified  m  the  course 
of  study  for  preparatory  institutions  "  The 
transfer  from  a  higher  or  middle  school  to  the 
institutions  for  the  training  of  teachers  is,  m 
Prussia  at  any  rate,  not  provided  for,  and  pupils 
who  wish  to  transfer  must  pass  an  entrance 
examination  for  admission  to  the  class  they  wish 
to  enter.  Pupils  come  in  some  cases  from  a 
middle  or  real  school,  but  rarely  from  a  higher 
school  The  course  of  study  of  both  institu- 
tions is  given  in  the  following  scheme;  the 
normal  schools  for  women  deviate  somewhat, 
but  only  slightly,  from  this. 


78 


GERMANY 


GERMANY 


TIME-TABLE  PREPARATORY  INSTITUTIONS  AND 
NORMAL  SCHOOLS 


PREPARATORY 
INSTITUTIONS 

NORMAL  SCHOOL 

CLASS 

III 

II 

I 

III 

II 

I 

Pedagogy  ... 
Lesson-plannmg      and 
model  lessons 
Practice  teaching 
Religion 
German     . 
Foreign  languages 
History 
Mathematics 
Science     and      nature 
study     . 
Geography 
Writing      . 
Drawing    . 
Gymnastics 
Music   .               .     . 

Agriculture     .     .     . 

4 

5 
3 

4 
5 
3 

3 

r> 

3 

3 

3 
5 
2 

3 

4 
6 
2 

3 

4-0 
32 
3» 
2 

5 

2 
2 
2 
2 
3 
3 

5 

4 
2 
2 
2 
3 
4 

r> 

4 

2 

1 
2 
3 
5 

5 

4 
3 

2 
3 
4 

5 

4 
2 

2 
3 
4 

1 
4 

34         37        37 

1 
38 

1 
38 

33-35 

» Included  with  subject  matter 
8  One  hour  for  method 


a  Method 


The  requirements  in  the  normal  schools  are 
given  in  detail  in  a  few  subjects  and  classes  — 

I     Pedagogy      (A)  Theory    of    Education      First    \ear    (J 
bourn  a  week)   — General  instruction  in  psychology  and  logic 
and  thoir  application  m  didacticH  and  methods      Second  \ear 
(3  hours  a  week)  —  Theory  of  education  ,  history  of  education 
from  the  second  semester        Third  year  (3  hours  a  week) 
Continuation  of  history  of  education  up  to  the  present  timn 
School   organization,    hygiene,    management     and    regulations 
Advice  in  regard  to  further  study  aft  PI  graduation 

(R)  Training  in  School  Practice  Second  year  —  In  con- 
nection with  model  lessons  in  the  practice  school  given  b\  the 
practice  teachers  the  students  of  the  normal  school  are  given 
opportunities  all  through  the  year  to  gi\e  lessons  which  they 
have  prepared,  and  they  receive  instructions  us  to  how  to  pro- 
ceed Third  year  — All  the  students  of  this  third  grade  an; 
intrusted  with  giving  lessons  and  IK  ting  .is  clnsy  teachers  in  tho 
practice  school  throughout  the  ycni  under  supervision  of  the 
regular  instructor  Each  student  must  have  from  four  to  six 
hours  a  week  of  independent  teaching  Two  hours  a  week  are 
to  be  devoted  by  the  students  to  preparing  lessons  with  atten- 
tion to  method  and  subject  matter,  criticizing  lessons  given  bv 
the  students  and  discussing  the  school  pltwit,  administration, 
discipline,  etc  Besides,  these  two  periods  are  set  aside  for 
model  lessons  and  practice  lessons  to  be  given  in  the  different 
branches  by  the  practice  teachers,  in  which  didactics  or  meth- 
ods are  exemplified  The  normal  students  itlso  arc  required  to 
attend  the  lessons  given  by  their  colleagues  affording  to  pre- 
viously determined  rotation  The  practice  and  special  teach- 
ers arc  to  familiarize  the  students  with  the  methods  used  in  each 

branch  of  study 

*  *  * 

III  German  Language  and  Literaturt  —  Third  year  ('i  hours 
a  week)  —  The  most  notable  contemporaries  of  Goethe  and 
Schiller  in  connection  with  their  works  and  their  time  Some 
of  the  noted  modern  poets  in  biographies  and  in  connection 
with  the  reading  of  their  works  The  German  folk  song 
Dramas  Wallenitetn  and  one,  drama  of  Shakespeare  Pi  one 
reading,  preferably  Herder's  and  Schillei's  prose  works  Home? 
compositions  once  a  month  Two  compositions  in  class 
Methods  of  teaching  One  hour  a  week  throughout  the  year 

IV  Foreign  Language**  (\)  French  First  year  (2  hours 
a  week)  —  Review  and  completion  of  accidence,  the  position 
of  words  ,  the  use  of  tenses  Reading  Simple  stories  m  prose  , 
easy  poems  Second  year  (2  hours  a  week)  —  The  use<<  of 
moods  ,  infinitive  and  participles  ,  declensions  and  words  gov- 
erning cases  Reading  Easy  historic  prose  author  of  modern 
times ,  poems  Third  year  (2  hours  a  week)  —  Syntax  com- 
pleted and  reviewed  Reading  Some  historians  of  modern 
times ,  poems 

*  *  * 

VI  Mathematics  (A)  Arithmetic  and  Algebra  First  year 
(3  hours  a  week)  —  Powers  and  roots,  logarithms,  equations 
of  the  first  degree  with  several  unknown  quantities  Second 
year  (3  hours  a  week)  —  Equations  of  the  second  degree 
Arithmetical  and  geometrical  progresnions  Compound  in- 
terest, computing  revenues,  annuities,  etc  Third  year  (1 
hour  a  week  for  arithmetic,  algebra,  and  geometry)  —  Meth- 
ods of  teaching  arithmetic  and  geometry 

(Bj  Geometry      First  year  (2  hours  a  week)   —  Proportional- 


ity of  straight  lines  and  similarity  of  figures  Stereometry 
Second  year  (2  hours  a  week)  —  Continuation  of  stereometry, 
construction  of  algebraic  formula? ,  trigonometric  functions 
and  computation  of  plane  figures  Third  year  (1  hour  a  week) 
—  See  above 

At  the  end  of  the  course  the  first  teachers' 
examination  is  held  at  the  normal  school  in  the 
presence  of  a  commissioner  of  the  government, 
the  regulations  for  which  are  as  follows  — 

The  standards  of  knowledge  and  ability  which  are  to  be 
required  are  defined  bv  tho  course  of  study  of  the  normal  school 
The  written  examinations  include  (1)  an  essay  on  a  topic  taken 
from  the  theory  of  education  or  method,  history  of  education, 
or  Gorman  literature ,  (2)  and  (3)  the  preparation  of  an  essay 
m  religion  arid  one  m  history  ,  (4)  a  translation  from  the  for- 
eign language  into  German,  (5)  the  preparation  of  a  chorale 
for  those  who  have  taken  lessons  m  organ  playing  and  harmony 
For  the  first  essay  four  hours,  for  the  rest  two  hours  are  allowed 
Tho  oral  examination  deals  with  the  positive  knowledge  in 
pedagogy,  religion,  German,  history,  and  the  foreign  language, 
and  methods  of  different  subjects  of  the  elementary  school 
Further,  those  students  who  showed  at  the  promotion  from  the 
second  to  the  third  class  an  unsatisfactory  knowledge  m  nature 
study  arid  geography  are  also  to  be  examined  in  these  subjects 
A  model  lesson  must  be  presented 

Candidates  prepared  outside  the  normal  schools  must  bo 
examined  in  all  the  subjects  of  the  curriculum 

The  first  examination,  however,  is  not  a  quali- 
fication for  appointment  as  teacher.  Such 
qualification  is  only  obtained  by  the  second 
examination,  which  may  be  passed  not  less  than 
two  nor  more  than  five  years  after  the  first 
This  is  not  a  repetition  of  the  first  examination 
but  aims  to  discover  the  ability  of  the  candidate 
to  hold  a  school  appointment.  The  examina- 
tion consists  of  three  parts  the  written  work, 
which  consists  in  the  preparation  of  an  essay 
on  an  educational  subject,  this  is  followed  by 
the  presentation  of  a  lesson  on  a  topic  assigned 
one  day  in  advance,  and  the  oral  examination, 
which  begins  with  pedagogy  covering  mainly 
the  history  of  education,  principles  and  method, 
a.nd  school  management;  the  examination  m 
method  may  include  all  the  subjects  of  the  ele- 
mentary curriculum,  but,  as  a  rule,  each  candi- 
date is  only  examined  in  three  subjects  On 
passing  this  examination  the  candidate  receives 
a  ceitificate  for  permanent  appointment  as 
teacher  m  the  elementary  school 

Two  further  examinations  may  be  taken  by 
the  teachers  The  examination  for  teachers  in 
middle  schools  qualifies  for  appointment  in 
middle  schools  and  girls'  high  schools  The  ex- 
amination for  principals,  which  may  only  be 
taken  after  that  f 01  middle  school  teachers,  qual- 
ifies for  appointment  as  directoi  or  instructor  in 
normal  schools,  district  school  inspector,  direc- 
tor of  preparatory  institutions,  middle  schools, 
and  elementary  schools  with  six  or  more  classes 

The  examination  for  middle  school  teachers 
consists  of  pedagogy  and  two  of  the  following 
subjects  religion,  German,  French,  English, 
history,  geography,  mathematics,  botany  and 
zoology,  physics  and  chemistry  A  thesis,  for 
which  eight  weeks  are  allowed,  must  be  pre- 
pared by  each  candidate  on  a  topic  from  one 
of  his  two  subjects  Further,  there  is  a  written 
examination  of  four  hours  on  the  two  subjects. 
The  oral  examination  consists  of  the  presenta- 
tion of  a  lesson,  and  an  examination  in  pedagogy 
and  the  two  selected  subjects. 


79 


GERMANY 


GERMANY 


The  principal's  examination  covers  only  the 
field  of  education  in  its  broader  sense  A  topic 
is  assigned  for  a  thesis,  for  which  eight  weeks  arc 
allowed,  on  the  theory  and  method  of  education 
and  school  management  The  oral  examina- 
tion covers  tho  whole  field  of  general  theory  arid 
method,  special  method  of  the  separate  sub- 
jects, their  history,  school  ordinances  and  school 
management,  school  apparatus,  and  aids  for  in- 
struction, popular  and  children's  literature,  etc 

Continuation  Schools  ( Fortbildu nqwch  idcn ) 
—  Those  schools  do  not  form  a  part  of  tho  school 
system  proper,  and  differ  from  that  in  orgam/a- 
tion  and  aims  For  further  treatment  soe 
CONTINUATION  SCHOOLS,  KVKNINO  SCHOOLS; 
and  especially  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

SECONDARY  EDUCATION  —  Tho  school 
year  is  divided  in  tho  same  way  as  tho  elemen- 
tal y  schools  In  Bavaria,  however,  the  school 
yoar  runs  from  the  end  of  September  to  tho 
beginning  of  July  School  opens,  as  a  rule,  at  7 
or  7  30  m  summer,  at  8  or  8  30  in  winter,  with 
five  or  six  periods  of  forty-five  to  fifty  minutes, 
occasionally  there  are  some  afternoon  periods. 
In  tho  smaller  towns  there  are  often  four  periods 
in  the  morning  and  one  or  two  in  the  afternoon 
The  size  of  the  schools  is  smaller  than  in  Amer- 
ica, tho  maximum,  which  is  rarely  reached,  being 
probably  1000  pupils,  400  to  500  being  the  nor- 
mal number,  while  schools  with  150  pupils  are 
rarely  found 

Tho  higher  education  of  boys  and  girls  is 
quite  distinct,  and  the  two  have  developed  his- 
torically along  different  linos  In  a  fow  states 
(Baden,  Hosso,  Wurttomboig)  tho  girls  tiro  ad- 
mitted to  tho  boys'  schools,  and  tho  tendency 
to  admit  girls  to  boys'  schools  in  small  towns, 
whore  the  numbers  are  not  great  enough  to  call 
for  separate  schools  for  girls,  is  gradually,  but 
surely,  making  itself  foil 

The  boys'  high  schools  arc,  as  a  rule,  public, 
there  being  very  fow  private  schools  Tho 
entrance  requirements  arc  the  successful  passing 
of  tho  third  or  fourth  class  in  tho  elemental y 
school  Frequently  preparatory  schools  which 
do  this  work  in  three  years  are  attached  to  the 
high  schools;  such  schools  (  Vorschulcn)  in 
which  fees  are  charged  are  preferred  by  tho 
wealthier  classes  Every  high  school  is  divided 
into  six  or  nine  classes  or  school  years  In  the 
larger  institutions  each  class  is  duplicated,  — • 
tho  autumn  class  for  those  pupils  who  are  pro- 
moted in  October,  and  the  Easter  class  for  those 
who  are  promoted  at  Easter  In  Radon  pro- 
motions take  place  only  once  each  yoar,  in  July, 
and  the  classes  are  then  divided  into  parallel 
sections  The  following  are  the  names  of  the 
classes,  their  abbreviated  form,  and  the  age  of 
entrance  into  each :  — 


Lower 

Stage 


fScxta    VI    9 

Qumta   V  10 

I  QuartalV  11 


Intermediate    I  ggJ^rtST      O  HI  13 
Stage         {  Uritersekunda  U  II  14 
( Obersekunda  O  II  IT) 

PPP-BU,.  teT         o!!S 

I  Abituricatcuezajoueu  18 


Thus  VI  0  is  the  Easter  group  of  Sexta;  U I  M 
the  Michaelmas  group  of  Unterprhna  Parallel 
classes,  as,  for  instance,  VI O  and  VI 02,  are 
found  only  in  exceptional  cases  where  the  classes 
are  too  large  The  three  stages  as  a  rule  form 
one  institution,  although  there  are  schools  con- 
sisting of  only  the  lower  and  middle  stages. 
Every  class  is  passed  m  a  year,  and  it  is  very 
rarely  that  a  pupil  can  accomplish  the  work  of 
a  class  m  half  a  yoar,  nor  is  this  encouraged. 
Those  who  do  not  reach  the  standard  of  a  class, 
that  is,  are  deficient  m  two  major  subjects,  fail 
of  promotion  and  repeat  tho  work  of  that  class 
for  a  whole  year  Promotions  are  by  classes 
and  never  by  subjects,  and  aro  made  on  a  pupil's 
standing  for  the  whole  yoar  and  on  the  opinion 
of  tho  teacher,  examinations  for  this  purpose 
rarely  take  placo  Tho  marking  is  at  present 
on  the  following  basis.  1,  very  good;  2,  good; 
3,  satisfactory,  4,  deficient,  5,  unsatisfactory 
In  a  fow  states  another  mark,  3,  good  as  a  whole, 
is  inserted  between  2  and  3,  and  6  becomes  the 
lowest  Generally  a  pupil  fails  of  promotion 
when  ho  is  deficient  in  two  major  subjects  Tho 
maximum  size  of  a  class  is  50  in  the  lowor,  40 
in  tho  intermediate,  and  30  m  the  upper,  stage 
Those  numbers  aro  frequently  reached  in  the 
lowor,  rarely  in  tho  upper,  stage  If  more  pupils 
enter  u  class,  then  a  division  into  two  parallel 
classes  is  made 

Curriculum  —  There  arc  three  types  of  higher 
schools  with  nine-year  courses:  the  gymna- 
sium, tho  oldest  form,  with  the  classical  lan- 
guages as  the  distinguishing  characteristic, 
the  realgvmuasium,  with  Latin,  modern  lan- 
guages and  natural  science,  the  oberrealschule, 
without  Greek  or  Latin,  but  with  the  modern 
languages  and  stronger  emphasis  on  mathe- 
matics Gorman,  mathematics,  history,  and 
religion  aro  common  to  all  Tho  following  time- 
tables of  the  three  kinds  of  schools  in  Prussia 
show  the  distribution  of  the  subjects  and  the 
number  of  periods  of  recitations  each  week: 

GYMNASIUM 


VI 

V 

IV 

UII1 

OIII 

UII 

on 

HI 

01 

To- 
tftl 

Required 

Religion 

3 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

10 

GeriTvm 

4 

3 

3 

2 

2 

3 

A  k 

3 

3 

2ft 

Latin 

s 

S 

8 

X 

s 

7 

7 

7/ 

7  1 

68 

Creek 

— 

— 

— 

0 

6 

r> 

« 

«l 

b{ 

36 

Frrnrh 

— 

4 

2 

2 

,i 

.{ 

.i 

3 

20 

History 

— 

— 

2 

2 

2 

2 

3  [ 

3/ 

3  J 

17 

Geography 

2 

2 

2 

1 

1 

1 

[ 

i 

9 

Arithmetic 

mid  Math- 

ematics 

* 

4 

4 

3 

3 

4 

4  ) 

4) 

4  ) 

34 

Natural  aei- 

cnce 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2  ' 

2  J 

2) 

18 

Writing 

2 

2 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

4 

Drawing 

— 

2 

2 

2 

2 

— 

—  . 

—  . 

— 

S 

Gymnastics 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

27 

Singing  l 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

18 

30 

30 

34 

35 

35 

35 

35 

35 

35 

304 

Optional 

Draw  mg 

2 

2 

2 

2 

Hebrew 

2 

2 

2 

English 

2 

2 

2 

1  From  IV  onward  only  for  pupils  with  vocal  ability. 


80 


GERMANY 


GERMANY 


The  brackets  denote  the  possibility  of  a  tem- 
porary alteration  of  number  of  periods  within 
the  same  group  of  subjects  In  classes  IV  and 
U  III  a  special  class  is  arranged  for  pupils 
whose  handwriting  is  bad 

The  following  changes  in  the  curriculum  are 
admissible.  In  Oil,  III,  arid  OI,  English 
may  take  the  place  of  French,  in  which  case 
French  may  remain  an  optional  subject  with 
two  hours  a  Veek.  In  U  III,  O  III,  and  O  II, 
other  subjects  may  be  substituted  for  Greek; 
in  which  case  three  hours  are  given  to  English, 
and  generally  in  U  III  and  0  III  two  houis  to 
French,  and  one  hour  to  arithmetic  and  mathe- 
matics, while  in  U  II  one  hour  is  given  to  French 
and  two  to  mathematics  and  natural  science 

REALGYMNASIUM 


VI 

V 

IV 

U  III 

GUI 

UII 

Oil 

UI 

OI 

To- 
tal 

Required 

Religion     . 

3 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

O 

2 

H> 

Gorman 

4 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

{ 

3 

Latin 

8 

8 

7 

5 

r> 

4 

4 

4 

4 

11) 

French 

— 

— 

5 

4 

4 

4 

4 

4) 

41 

29 

English 

— 

— 

— 

3 

J 

3 

1 

Jl 

3| 

IS 

History 

— 

— 

2 

2 

2 

2 

3 

n 

II 

17 

Geography 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

1 

— 

j 

11 

Arithmetic  and 

A 

A 

4 

A 

Natural       sci- 

ence 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

4 

r> 

"> 

^ 

2f> 

Writing      .     . 
Drawing    . 

2 

2 
2 

2 

2 

'> 

— 

> 

'   2 

2 

4 
1(1 

Hinging  »    .     . 

2 

2 

o 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

18 

30 

30 

34 

35 

35 

35 

36     ^ 

3<> 

307 

Optional 
Geometrical 

drawing 

2 

2 

2 

~ 

2 

1  Afl  in  the  Gymnasium 
OBERREALSCHULE 


VI 

V 

IV 

UIII 

OIII 

UII 

on 

UI 

01 

To- 
tal 

Required 

Religion 

3 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

19 

German 

5 

4 

4 

3 

3 

3 

4 

4 

4 

34 

French  .     . 

(i 

6 

G 

0 

b 

5 

4 

4 

4 

47 

English 

— 

— 

— 

5 

4 

4 

4 

4 

1 

25 

History 

—  - 

— 

3 

2 

2 

2 

3 

3 

3 

18 

Geography 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

1 

1 

1 

1 

14 

Arithmetic  and 

Mathematics 

5 

5 

0 

6 

r> 

5 

5 

5 

r> 

47 

Natural      sei- 

enoe 

2 

2 

2 

2 

4 

0 

(i 

(> 

{> 

30 

Writing 

2 

2 

2 

—  . 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

0 

Freehand 

drawing 

— 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

16 

Gymnastics    . 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

27 

Singing  l    .     * 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

18 

30 

30 

34 

35 

"35 

35 

Jb~ 

30 

30 

307 

Optional 

Geometrical 

, 

drawing 

2 

2 

2 

2 

1  As  in  the  Gymnasium 

The  extent  of  the  knowledge  which  is  to  be 
transmitted  will  be  indicated  through  the 
scope  of  the  curriculum  of  the  highest  class 
in  a  few  of  the  chief  subjects  and  through  the 
requirements  of  the  final  examination  (Based 
on  Lexis,  Vol.  II ) 

TOL.  in  —  a  81 


(Irrtl  Snbi«'t<<  i»  fiuwnntinm  —  Heading:  Homer's  Jhml, 
Soph<><  Ics,  Euripides,  Plato,  selections  from  Thuoyelules,  and 
Demosthenes ,  other.  pros*1  valuable  for  content ,  appropuate 
selections  of  Greek  lyric  pootr>  Grammar,  revision,  and 
rocapitulatioiiH  of  the  whole  subject,  as  found  necessary 
Practice  in  unsoon  translation  Written  translations  from  and 
into  Greek 

Latin  in  the  Gymnasium  — Reading,  5  hours  Cicero  (eg 
in  Verrem  IV  or  V,  pro  1'lanao,  pro  •SV-rtio,  all  with  omissions, 
pro  Murtna,  selections  from  Cicero's  philosophical  and  rhe- 
torical writings,  also  from  his  letters,  Tacitus'  Germania  (at 
least  till  Chap  27),  also  Af/ncnla,  or  parts  of  the  Dialofjuf,  selec- 
tions from  the  Annalfv  (especially  the  sections  referring  to 
Germany)  and  from  the  J/i^tonri,  selections  from  Horace, 
memorization  of  Home  of  the  Od<*  Occasionally,  unseen 
translation  Private  reading,  especially  also  of  writers  read 
in  previous  (lasses,  i,s  to  be  encouraged  and  fostered,  but  is 
not  required  as  obligatory  Grammar,  2  hours  revision  with 
special  attention  to  the  more  important  and  difficult  syntactical 
rules,  recapitulating  explanations  of  specially  prominent 
stylistic  peculiarities  Translation  into  Latin,  written  class 
and  home  exercises 

The  requirements  in  Latin  in  tho  real  gymnasium  are 
somewhat  lowei 

French  in  the  Realoj/mnamum  —  The  reading,  which,  as  in 
tho  gymnasium,  occupies  a  central  position,  is  treated  more 
extensively  and  intensively  than  in  the  latter,  so  that  the  pupils 
may  acquire  a  broader  notion  of  the  special  qualities  of  French 
literature  in  the  last  centuries,  as  well  as  some  knowledge  of  the 
national  culture  and  character  Revision  and  completion  of 
the  more  important  sections  of  the  grammar  An  outline  of 
the  laws  of  versification  The  essentials  of  svnonvmy  and  of 
the  laws  of  stylo  Extension  of  the  vocabulary,  including  ulso 
technical  and  scientific  terms  Written  and  oral  exercises 
Exercise  in  essay  writing,  from  frequent  brief  production  of 
what  has  boon  road,  up  to  «i  freer  treatment  of  definite  concrete 
subjects  Conversational  exerc  ises  at  every  lesson,  not  merely 
in  connection  with  the  reading  and  incidents  of  daily  life,  but 
also  on  the  history,  literature,  and  culture  of  the  French  nation. 

Frriuh  in  (k<  Oberruih<hiih  — -In  these  schools  the  teaching 
nims  at  imparting  a  knowledge  of  the  more  important  French 
writings  of  the  last  three  centuries,  insight  into  the  grammatical 
system  of  the'  language,  some  knowledge'  of  the  most  important 
sections  oi  French  literary  tind  soc  nil  history,  and  practice  in 
speaking  and  \\iit ing 

The  scope  in  English  is  similar,  although  essays  are  not  re- 
quired in  thin  language  Tho  scope  of  those  subjects  is  corre- 
spondingly smaller  in  the  gymnasium 

Arithmftu  in  the  Rml{/i/rnnai)urn  and  Ohcrreahrhulc  — The- 
ory of  combinations,  andnpplic  ation  to  the  theory  of  probability 
The  binomial  theorem  for  any  exponents,  and  the  simplest 
infinite  series  Repetition  and  continuation  of  the  arith- 
metical course  (extension  of  the  notion  of  numbers  bv  alge- 
braical operations,  from  the*  positive  integral  to  the  complex 
number)  Cubic  equations  Elomontar>  exercises  in  maxima 
and  minima  Spherical  trigonometry  with  application  to 
mathematical  geography  arid  agronomy 

Geometry  — Elements  of  desenptiye  geometry  The  most 
important  problems  in  conic  sections  in  elementary-synthetical 
treatment  Analytical  plane  geometry  Revision,  recapitu- 
lation, and  exercises  in  all  branches  of  the  subject  taught  ill 
previous  classes 

Methods  of  Teaching  —  No  account  can  here 
be  given  of  the  methods  of  instruction  in  the 
German  schools;  an  insight  into  them  can 
only  be  obtained  by  a  visit  to  the  schools  and 
by  a  study  of  the  textbooks  General  regu- 
lations on  method  are  found  only  to  a  small 
extent;  like  the  choice  of  textbooks,  the 
method  of  teaching  is  left  to  the  individual 
schools  Since  school  inspection,  which  might 
serve  to  secure  uniformity,  is  very  slight  in 
higher  education,  the  vaiiety  found  in  teach- 
ing is  exceedingly  gieat,  and  a  somewrmt  firmer 
restriction  placed  on  the  individ  .aJ  teacher 
would  at  times  not  be  out  of  place  A  certain 
amount  of  uniformity  is  secured  within  each 
institution  through  the  use  of  the  same  text- 
book by  different  teachers,  and  in  the  system 
itself  through  the  prescription  of  definite  aims 
whose  attainment  is  assured  by  means  of  the 
final  examination,  at  which  an  inspector  is 
frequently  present. 


GERMANY 


GERMANY 


Progyiunasiums  ami  iriilptu^viiina.siums, 
which  are  not  \<»rv  numerous,  and  the  very 
numerous  real  schools  have  each  the  same 
curriculum,  differing  only  in  that  they  lack  the 
three,  occasionally  (especially  in  Baden)  the 
two,  highest  classes.  Only  the  Berlin  real 
schools  have  a  somewhat  different  curriculum 
for  purposes  of  better  articulation  with  the 
common  schools.  French  LS  here  begun  in 
Quarta,  and  more  attention  is  given  in  the 
lower  stage  to  arithmetic  and  mathematics 

Reform  Schools  —  From  the  accompanying 
table  it  can  be  seen  that  the  transition  from 
the  gymnasium  to  the  realgymnasium  is  quite 
possible  in  the  first  three  years,  but  a  change 
from  the  oberrealschule  and  the  realschule  to 
the  gymnasium  or  realgymnasium  or  vice  versa 
is  entirely  impossible  Hence  parents  must 
decide  quite  early,  when  their  children  are  nine 
or  ten  years  of  age,  on  the  type  of  school  to 
which  they  are  to  be  sent  The  feeling  that  it 
would  be  better  to  postpone  a  decision  which 
is  irrevocable  has  led  to  the  organization  of 
the  reformgymnasiurn  and  realgymnasium  A 
common  foundation  is  laid  for  the  three  types 
of  high  schools,  for  which  purpose  the  lower 
stage  of  the  real  school  or  oberrealschule  is 
employed  At  the  end  of  three  years  theie  is 
a  bifurcation;  one  section  begins  English  and 
continues  later  with  a  stronger  emphasis  on 
natural  sciences  (realschule  arid  oberrealschule), 
the  other  begins  Latin,  and  after  two  years  is 
again  split  up,  the  one  division  (gymnasium) 
beginning  Greek,  the  other  (realgymnasium) 
English.  This  is  the  Frankfort  system,  from 
which  that  of  Altona  deviates  somewhat  Ac- 
cording to  this  system  either  separate  institu- 
tions may  be  established  for  the  three  types  of 
schools,  gymnasium,  realgymnasium,  realschule, 


or  oberrealschule,  or  two  or  three  different 
types  may  be  united  into  one  institution. 
The  following  is  the  time-table  of  an  institution 
consisting  of  a  reformgyrnnasium  and  real- 
gymnasium  (the  Leibnitz  School  at  Hanover, 
wheie  also  a  special  method  is  employed  in 
teaching  Greek,  the  pupils  beginning  with  the 
Homeric  dialect  and  poems  m  U  II,  and  going 
on  to  the  Attic  dialect  in  O  II):  — 

The  following  scheme  shows  a  *  combination 
of  the  realgymnasium  with  the  real  school 
according  to  the  Altona  system :  — 

TIME-TABLE  OF  THE  REALGYMNASIUM  AND 
REALSCHULE  IN  ALTONA 


TOTAL 

FOUNDA- 

RKAL- 

FOR 

TION 

8CHULE 

REAL- 

FOUNDA- 

(JlMNAfllUM 

TION  AND 
RKAL- 

GYMNA- 

VI 

V 

IV 

III 

II 

I 

81UM 

Required 
Religion 

3 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

19 

German 

ft 

4 

4 

3 

A 

3 

2 

2 

3 

3 

3 

3 

29 

Latin 

_ 

— 

— 

— 

— 

0    6j   0 

0 

0 

6 

30 

Freneh 

() 

1) 

r> 

() 

5 

5 

4'   4|   3 

3 

3 

3 

37 

Englwh 

— 

4 

ft 

4 

ft 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

22 

History 

— 

2 

2 

<> 

2 

2 

2 

2 

3 

3 

3 

17 

Geogruphv 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

1 

2 

1 

1 

— 

10 

Arithmetic 

— 

3 

2 

1 

1 

1  — 







\AA 

Mathematics 

r> 

5 

3 

4 

ft 

ft 

4    4 

ft 

4 

ft 

ft 

)44 

PhvHieH 

— 

— 

— 

2 

31— 

21   2 

3 

2 

2 

11 

ChcmiHtrv 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

2 

2 

2 

0 

Nature  study 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

— 

2 

2 

2 

12 

Writing 

>) 

<.) 

Drawing 

3 

'> 

i) 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

i> 

? 

?, 

16 

Gymnastic-H 

3 

A 

i 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3l  3 

3 

3 

27 

Singing 

2 

2 

3  Choral  Hinging 

23 

30 

30 

'ift 

30 

30 

37)30 

30 

37 

37 

37 

37 

315 

Optional 

Geometrical 

drawing 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

9 

2 

2 

2 

2 

SpuniHli 

~ 

2 

2 



2 

2 

2 

2 

TIME-TABLE   OF   THE    LEIBNITZ   SCHOOL  IN   HANOVER   GYMNASIUM  AND   REALGYMNASIUM 

WITH  A  COMMON  FOUNDATION 


FOUNDATION 

REA!  OYMNA8UTM 

G  YMNASIUM 

VI 

V 

IV 

nil 

OIII 

I    11 

on 

III 

01 

Total 

UII 

Oil 

UI 

01 

Total 

Required 

Religion 

3 

2 

2 

2 

2     I 

2 

2     !      2 

2 

19 

2 

2 

2 

2 

19 

German 

5 

4 

4 

3 

3     i 

3 

3 

3 

3 

31 

3 

3 

3 

3 

31 

Latin 

— 

— 

— 

10 

10     1 

ft 

ft 

5 

40 

8 

8 

8 

8 

51 

Greek 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 







8 

8 

8 

8 

32 

French 

0 

G 

6 

3 

3 

4 

4 

3 

4 

30 

2 

2 

2 

2 

32 

English 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

0 

4 

4 

3 

17 

History 

lo 

\ 

3 

2 

2 

2 

3 

3 

3 

2 

2 

2 

3 

Geography     . 

J  " 

1 

3 

2 

2 

1 

— 

i     30 

27 

Arithmetic 
Mathematics 

ft 

1    6 

r 

4 

4 

4 

ft 

ft 

ft 

42 

3 

3 

3 

3 

35 

Nature  study 

2 

2 

3 

2 

2 

— 

— 





11 

,  



.  v 

___ 

11 

Physios 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

3 

2 

3 

3 

11 

2 

2 

2 

2 

g 

Chemistry 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

2 

2 

0 

Writing 

2 

2 

— 

— 

— 

— 

.  — 



4 









4 

Drawing 

— 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

10 









8 

Singing 
Gymnastics  .     . 

2 
3 

2 
3 

2 
3 

2 
3 

2    1 
3    I 

2 
3 

2 
3 

2 
3 

2 
3 

10 

27 

2 
3 

2 
3 

2 
3 

2 
3 

18 
27 

30 

30 

33 

35 

35 

37 

37 

37 

37 

311 

35 

35 

35 

35 

303 

Optional 
Hebrew 

English 

Geometrical 

drawing 

~ 

~ 

" 

~ 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

— 

— 

2 

2 

2 

2 

82 


GERMANY 


GERMANY 


The  aim  and,  as  a  rule,  the  methods  of  the 
reform  schools  are  the  same  as  in  the  corre- 
sponding schools  of  the  old  type.  They  are 
thus  by  no  means  new  schools,  but  merely 
differ  in  postponing  certain  subjects  in  favor 
of  others  Two  principles  are,  however, 
adopted,  new  to  the  traditional  German  schools 
which  had  and  still  have  a  fixed  course:  these 
are  the  principles  of  a  common  foundation  and 
of  bifurcation  Two  important  changes  are 
thereby  effected;  first  the  decision  on  the 
choice  of  an  educational  course  is  postponed 
for  several  years,  and  secondly  more  types  of 
courses  can  be  offered  in  the  same  institution 
and  under  the  same  direction  These  prin- 
ciples find  even  wider  application  m  the  reform 
of  girls'  schools  and  middle  schools  They 
indicate  that  the  German  educational  system 
is  gradually  abandoning  the  principle  of  a 
fixed  curriculum  and  is  accepting  the  principle 
of  election,  —  a  movement  of  the  highest  sig- 
nificance The  Frankfort  Plan  was  originated 
by  Dr  Remhardt,  now  at  Berlin 

The  tables  in  the  next  column  show  schemati- 
cally the  relations  between,  and  the  articulation 
of,  the  three  types  of  higher  schools  in  the  old 
and  reform  system 

Leaving  Examination  (Abituricntcnprufung) 
—  The  requirements  correspond  to  the  pro- 
gram of  instruction  of  Pnma  The  written 
examination  comprises,  for  all  the  schools,  a 
German  essay  and  the  working  of  four  mathe- 
matical questions,  each  dealing  with  a  different 
branch,  further,  (a)  In  the  gymnasium,  a 
translation  from  German  into  Latin,  and  an- 
other from  Greek  into  German  (6)  In  the 
realgy  rrmasium :  a  translation  from  Latin  into 
German;  according  to  the  curriculum  of  each 
separate  institution,  a  French  or  an  English 
exercise,  viz  ,  either  an  essay  or  a  translation 
from  German;  and  a  question  in  physics 
(c)  In  the  oberrealschule  a  French  and  an 
English  exercise,  an  essay  in  one  of  these  two 
languages  and  a  translation  from  German  into 
the  other  language,  and  a  question  in  physics 
or  in  chemistry 

The  oral  examination  comprises,  for  all  the 
schools,  Christian  religious  teaching,  history, 
mathematics,  and  further:  (a)  in  the  gym- 
nasium: Latin,  Greek,  and  according  to  the 
curriculum  of  each  separate  institution,  either 
French  or  English;  (6)  for  the  realgy mnasium 
Latin,  French,  and  English,  and  physics  or 
chemistry;  (c)  for  the  oberrealschule''  French 
and  English,  and  physics  or  chemistry 

Statistical.  —  The  tables  on  page  84  will  give 
some  information  on  the  number  of  the  dif- 
ferent schools,  the  number  of  teachers,  of 
pupils,  etc  ;  material  of  a  more  exhaustive  and 
detailed  character  is  not  available 

Privileges  —  Two  kinds  of  Berechtigungen, 
or  of  certificates  that  entitle  the  holder  to  cer- 
tain important  privileges,  can  be  acquired  in 
the  higher  schools :  the  certificate  of  admission 
for  the  one  year  volunteer  service  in  the  army, 


A  ACCORDING  TO  THE  OLD  SYSTEM,  THE  CRITI- 
CAL POINTS  BEING  AT  THE  AGES  OF  9  AND  11, 
\S  A  RULE  EACH  TYPE  BEING  A  SEPARATE 
INSTITUTION 


GYMNA- 

RfcALQYM- 

OBERKLAI-  AOE  AT 

SIUM 

NAS1UM 

SCHLLE    ENI-KANCE 

OI 

01 

OI             17 

Upper  Stage 
(3  years) 

Ji 

A 

UI              16 

(Privilege  of  one 

1 

year  volunteer 
military  service) 

Oil 

on 

1 

Oil             15 

Middle  Stage 
(3  years) 


U  II 


14 


U  II  Science  U  II 

I  |     begun       I 

OIII  OIII  OlllSciencelS 

|  |  |  begun 

U  III  Greek  U  III 

I      begun     I 


UIII 


12 


Lower  Stage 
(3  years) 


IV  French 
I      begun 


'.  Latin 
begun 


IV 


11 


VI  French 
I    begun 


Preparatory  school  or 
Public  elementary  school 


O  years)  or 
(about  4  yeais) 


B  ACCORDING  TO  THE  REFORM  SYSTEM,  THE 
CRITIC \L  POINTS  BEING  AT  THE  \GES  OF  11 
AND  13,  TWO  OR  EVEN  THREE  TYPES  FORMING 
ONE  INSTITUTION 


G\MNA-        RbALGVM- 

OHEKRKAL- 

BIUM               NASIUM 

8CHULL 

AGF  AT 

ENTRANCE 

01              01 

01              17 

Upper  Stage 
(3  years) 

J,    Jl 

1                        1 

UI             16 
1 

(Privilege  of  one 
yoar  volunteer 

on        on 

O  III           15 

military  service) 

1 

UII  Greek  U  II  English  U 

II             14 

begun           begun 

Middle  Stage 

(2  years) 

OIII 

01 

II             13 

U  III  Latin 

IT  I 

flEng-    12 

|      begun 

lish  begun 

Lower  Stage 
(3  years) 


11 
10 


[  V I  French  begun        9 

The  age  at  graduation  in  both  systems  is  18  or  10 


Einjahrigenschein,  and  the  certificate  of  ma- 
turity for  higher  piofessional  studies,  Reife- 
prufimgszeugnif;  or  Zeugnis  der  Rcife  fur  hohere 
Berufsstudien 

a  The  FJinjahigenschein  is  obtained  in  the 
schools  with  a  course  of  six  years  or  classes 
(rcalschulcn,  etc  )  by  the  final  examination  at 
the  end  of  the  course,  in  the  schools  with  a 
course  of  nine  years  (the  three  preparatory 
years  not  counted  in  either  case)  or  classes 
without  an  examination  by  the  promotion  from 


83 


GERMANY  GERMANY 

PRUSSIAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS  ON  FEB.   1,  1909 » 


TTPB  OP  SCHOOL, 


Gymnasium 
Proary  mnasi  urn 
Keulgymnaamm 
Healprogymnasium 
Oberrealsrhule  . 
Uealvchule 


336 
35 

138 
45 
85 

169 


NUMBER  or  TEACHERS 

NUMBBR  OF  PUPILS 

PI 

|f| 

|| 

OI 

TIT 

Oil 

UII 

om 

UIII 

IV 

V 

VI 

TOTA.L 

111 

IF 

IN 

4848 
1851 
1(532 
195 

613 
37 
305 
50 

385 
20 
103 
10 

6068 
1338 

7116 
1830 

8724 
2748 

11,461 
510 
4,360 
346 

12,486 
676 
5,050 
667 

13,215 

740 
5,853 
736 

14,560 
828 
6,417 
946 

14,020 
838 
6,577 
1,040 

14,646 
905 
7,029 
1,243 

102,297 
4,497 
41,202 

4,878 

1212 
911 

259 
300 

96 
95 

898 

1276 

2144 

3.504 
3,594 

4,286 
4,654 

4,823 
5,817 

5,014 
6,127 

5,976 
6,246 

6,214 
6,912 

34,735 
33,350 

1  From  Centralblatt,  etc  ,  Ery<tnzungaheftt  1910,  p   50 
PRUSSIAN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS  ON  FEE    1,  1908  (A)  AND  1909  (B)  ' 


Schools  (including 
reform  school) 

Teachers 

Teachers  in  pre- 
paratory schools 

PupiUs       . 

Pupils  in  prepar- 
atory schools 


CYMNAHIUM 

RE 

OYMN 
A 

Al- 
AMIUM 

OBER- 
KFAI  HCHULK 

Pi 

GYMN 

A 

10- 
ASIUM 

REALPKO- 

GYMNASIUM 

REAL.SCHULE 

TOTAL 

A 

332 
0,262 

B 

B 

A 

B 

B 

A 

B 

A 

B 

A 

B 

336 
6,388 

124 
2,029 

138 
2,243 

75 
1,626 

85 
1,716 

40 
318 

35 

287 

39 
250 

45 
312 

171 
1  ,540 

169 
1,501 

781 
11,925 

808 
12,447 

353 
101,094 

366 
102,297 

180 
37,683 

199 
41,202 

137 
30,702 

lp)r» 
34.7J5 

3 
4940 

1 
4497 

20 
4225 

35 

4878 

1J8 
33,405 

126 
33,350 

837 
212,115 

872 
220,959 

13,006 

13,309 

6,905 

7,424 

4,924 

5,044 

98 

JO 

88Q 

1177 

5,009 

4,898 

30,831 

32,441 

OTHER  STATES 


Bavaria  (1909)                   46 

4 

9 

32 

51 

141 

Wurttemberg 

(1909)               .                 14 

6 

10 

5 

7 

88  » 

129 

Saxony                                  19 

12 

2 

~" 

~ 

30 

1  From  Centralblatt,  etc  ,  1909          •  Twenty-one  of  these  schools  have  one  or  two  upper  classes  (oberaekunda  and  unterpnma) 


untersekunda  to  obersekunda,  which  takes  place 
after  successfully  completing  the  first  six 
years  or  classes  of  the  whole  course  (of  nine 
years)  The  most  important  privilege  acquired 
by  this  certificate  is  the  right  of  serving  only 
one  year  in  the  army,  whereas  otherwise  every 
German  has  to  serve  at  least  two  years  The 
service  is  voluntary  (Einjahng  Frciwilliger)  in 
so  far  as  the  time  of  service  and  the  regiment 
may,  within  certain  limits,  be  selected  by  the 
individual  holding  the  privilege  This  is  of 
course  of  economic  importance,  but  besides  it 
means  a  social  distinction,  especially  as  the 
officers  of  the  reserve,  a  much-coveted  dignity, 
are  taken  from  the  Einj&hrige  only  At  the 
same  time  this  certificate  will  show  that  the 
bearer  possesses  a  certain  amount  of  knowledge 
and  intellectual  training,  and  so  a  publicly  and 
officially  recognized  standard  of  education  is 
established  by  it  which  easily  can  and  actually 
does  serve  as  the  entrance  requirement  for 
many  official  and  private  careers  So  this 
certificate  is  the  indispensable  entrance  require- 
ment for  the  intermediate  careers  (as  official 
or  clerk)  in  the  post  office,  telegraph  and  tele- 


84 


phone  service,  in  the  service  of  the  judicial, 
the  provincial,  and  the  local  administration, 
and  the  state  railway  service  (the  higher 
careers  being  always  filled  by  university- 
trained  men,  the  lower  ones  with  men  who 
have  had  an  elementary  school  training)  In 
this  respect  the  Einjahngemchein  takes  the 
place  of  the  civil  service  examination  m  America. 
Large  business  houses  and  especially  banks 
generally  do  not  take  apprentices  who  have 
not  at  least  this  certificate,  sometimes  they 
require  even  more  The  natural  result  is  that 
a  large  number  of  boys  remain  at  school  only 
for  the  purpose  of  getting  this  certificate  and 
leave  as  soon  as  they  obtain  it  (sec  the  figures 
under  U  II  and  O  II  m  table  above). 

6  The  Reifeprufung  is  the  examination  at 
the  end  of  the  full  course  of  nine  years  of  the 
three  different  types  It  gives  the  right  of 
admission  to  the  careers  of  officer  in  the  army 
and  navy,  and  above  all  the  right  of  admission 
to  the  universities  and  technical  Hochschulen, 
that  is,  ultimately  to  the  state  examinations 
at  the  end  of  the  university  or  technical  course. 
So  the  Reifeprufung  is  nearly  the  only  entrance 


GERMANY 


GERMANY 


to  all  higher  walks  of  life,  and  certainly  to  all 
higher  positions  of  honor  and  trust  in  the 
service  of  the  state ;  and  the  social  recognition 
in  which  it  is  held  is  correspondingly  high 

The  criticism  which  is  sometimes  made  by 
foreign  observers  of  the  system  of  privileges 
shows  a  failure  to  realize  the  function  and  the 
importance  of  this  system  It  certainly  has 
drawbacks;  it  is  a  heavy  burden  on  the  boys 
and  on  their  parents;  it  keeps  many  boys  in 
school  who  ought  not  to  be  there  any  longer, 
and  is  therefore  a  burden  on  the  school  But 
infinitely  greater  are  its  advantages  for  the 
life  of  the  nation  as  well  as  for  the  work  of  the 
school  By  this  system  definite  educational 
standards  are  secured  throughout  the  nation, 
in  a  reliable  way  it  provides  young  men  with 
a  broad  knowledge  and  thorough  intellectual 
training  for  the  higher  as  well  as  for  the  middle 
careers  in  life,  it  relieves  the  higher  institu- 
tions of  the  burden  of  elementary  work  and 
lays  a  good  foundation  for  their  own  work. 
It  puts  the  examinations  where  they  belong,  — 
at  the  beginning  and  not  at  the  end  of  the 
course;  and  though  it  sifts  thoroughly,  it 
avoids  the  tremendous  waste  of  entrance  ex- 
aminations; it  does  not  place  the  examinations 
in  the  hands  of  persons  who  have  never  seen 
the  boy,  but  leaves  him  to  his  teachers,  who 
have  known  and  worked  with  him  for  years; 
and  the  boy  is  not  judged  by  the  written  work 
of  a  few  hours,  but  by  the  oral  and  written 

RESULTS  OF  THE  REIFEPRUFUNG   IN  PRUSSIA, 
EASTER,  1907-1Q08  » 


AT  TUB 

AT  THE 

AT  THE 

REAL- 

OBER- 

GYMNA- 

GYMNA- 

RFAL- 

SIUMS 

BIUM8 

8CHULJBN 

g 

3 

S 

"5 

jjj 

J 

£  s 

J       £ 

$        *-> 

-     5 

Si      2 

H      2 

M             * 

2     W 

w          OJ 

S    w 

a  w 

1907  1908 

1907  1908 

1907  1908 

Number     registered     for     the 

examination   . 

11205133 

239    1053 

117  745 

Number  not  admitted  or  with- 

drawn 

412 

79 

60 

Number  examined 

5841 

1213 

802 

Number  passed  . 
Of  those  successful  there  were 

5022 

1183 

779 

Protestants 

3397 

971 

648 

Catholics    . 

1862 

131 

97 

Jews            .                . 

357 

77 

27 

Number  under  18  years  of  age  . 
18  years  old 

278 
1497 

48 
356 

27 
206 

1  9  years  old 

1698 

412 

268 

20  years  old 

1127 

220 

186 

21  years  and  over 
Number  of  successful  candidates 

1022 

147 

92 

who  went  to  the  universities 

4042 

632 

353 

To  the  technical  high  schools 
Entered  military  career 

487 
349 

204 
58 

164 
22 

Entered  higher  forestry,  cus- 

toms,    postal     and     other 

state  service 

151 

42 

36 

Other   occupations   and    unde- 

cided       

593 

247 

204 

lFrom  Centralblatt,  etc.,  1908. 


85 


work  of  a  year  and  by  his  whole  personality. 
The  system  secures  the  willing,  though  not 
always  the  hearty,  cooperation  of  the  parents. 
Last,  but  not  least,  it  exercises  an  automatic 
pressure  on  the  boy,  which  causes  him  to  work, 
—  a  pressure  which  otherwise  the  teacher  would 
have  to  exercise  by  his  personal  efforts.  Thus 
the  school  system  becomes  more  efficient.  It 
would  be  difficult  to  devise  another  system 
which  could  bring  about  these  same  results  as 
economically  ana  as  thoroughly  Far  from 
being  the  "  bane  of  German  secondary  educa- 
tion," the  system  of  privileges —  Einjdhngen- 
schein,  Reifeprufung,  Staatsexamen  —  is,  there- 
fore, the  most  important  reason  for  the  effi- 
ciency and  thoroughness  of  the  German  schools, 
more  important  than  even  the  preparation  of 
teachers,  which  is  partly  secured  only  with  the 
help  of  this  system 

The  extcrns,  Extraner,  those  who  prepared 
outside  of  the  schools,  are  not  counted  in  this 
list  In  1907-1908  at  the  gymnasiums  368 
extcrns  registered,  for  the  examination  of  whom 
253  were  admitted  and  150  passed;  88  of  them 
were  21  years  of  age  and  over,  and  85  entered 
a  university  At  the  realgymnasiums  the 
corresponding  figures  were,  205,  162,  123,  73, 
61,  and  at  the  oberrealschulen,  186,  97,  67,  — , 
23. 

Cadet  Schools.  —  These  schools  are  to  be 
found  in  Prussia,  Bavaria,  and  Saxony  They 
provide  for  the  general  training  of  future  offi- 
cers in  the  army  and  are  generally  boarding 
schools,  with  the  curriculum  of  the  realgym- 
nasium  combined  with  military  practice  In 
Prussia  there  are  eight  preparatory  institutions 
with  lower  classes  (Sexta  to  Obertertia)  only, 
and  one  central  institution  with  the  upper 
classes  (Untersccunda  to  Oberprima),  which  is 
at  Bcrhn-Grosslichterfelde  This  horizontal  di- 
vision into  lower  and  upper  sections  is  a  special 
feature  of  the  cadet  schools,  distinguishing  them 
from  the  other  higher  schools  In  1893  m 
Prussia  the  number  of  pupils  in  the  preparatory 
institutions  was  2470,  in  the  central  institution 
1000  Many  officers  come  also  from  the  regu- 
lar higher  schools,  with  or  without  the  Reife- 
zeugnis.  (Sec  MILITARY  EDUCATION  ) 

Higher  Education  of  Girls.  —  For  a  long 
time  the  higher  education  of  girls  was  not  so 
well  cared  for  as  that  of  the  boys,  and  at  times 
it  was  almost  neglected  But  in  recent  years 
a  strong  reform  movement  has  thoroughly  re- 
organized these  schools  and  placed  them  on  a 
much  higher  level  Whereas  most  of  them 
were  formerly  in  private  hands  and  were 
money-making  institutions,  a  rapidly  growing 
percentage  is  now  supported  by  the  communi- 
ties; the  state,  at  least  the  state  of  Prussia, 
supports  only  very  few  (see  p.  74).  As  to 
promotion,  division  of  school  year,  etc.,  see 
the  general  remarks  on  the  higher  schools  for 
boys.  The  classes  are  generally  named  10th 
class,  9th  class,  etc  ,  the  1st  class  being  the 
highest. 


GERMANY 


GERMANY 


Organization  and  Curnrula  — There  are 
separate  higher  schools  for  girls  in  all  the 
states  of  the  empire.  Their  curriculum,  with 
the  exeeptiori  of  riathcmalics  and  science,  is 
not  widely  different  from  that  of  the  realschu- 
len,  and,  though  frequently  one  year  longer 
(10  years  or  7  without  the  3  years  of  the 
preparatory  school),  it  is  not  quite  so  broad 
and  the  teaching  not  so  thorough  (partly  on 
account  of  the  absence  of  privileges,  Berech- 
tigungeri)  Those  girls  who  desire  to  get  an 
education  equal  to  that  of  the  boys  or  who 
wish  to  pass  the  tteifeprufuiig  arc,  m  some  of 
the  smaller  (lei-man  states,  either  admitted  to 
the  boys'  schools  (as  in  Baden  or  Saxony),  or 
to  M&dchen-gi/m  Hasten  or  real-gymnasien,  which 
are  in  no  way  different  from  the  corresponding 
schools  for  boys  in  Baden  In  Prussia,  accord- 
ing to  the  regulations  of  1908,  the  girls  arc  not 
admitted  to  the  boys'  schools,  and  the  new 
higher  girls'  schools  are  different  from  the 
boys'  schools  As  these  regulations  of  1908 
will  be  the  starting  point  for  a  new  develop- 
ment and  will  be  more  or  less  adopted  by 
other  (i  or  man  states,  their  most  important 
features  must  be  given  here. 

In  Prussia  the  higher  girls'  school  proper 
contains  a  course  of  10  years  (or  7  without  the 
3  years  of  the  preparatory  school),  which  is 
nearly  equal  to  the  9  (or  6  respectively)  years 
of  the  realschule  On  this  course  two  others 
are  built,  both  comprised  under  the  name  of 
Lyceum'  one  of  two  years,  to  be  known  as 
Frauennchule,  a  very  undefined  course;  the 
other,  one  of  foui  years,  called  hokeres  Lchrenn- 
ncnscintnar  (training  college  for  women  teachers 
at  the  higher  girls'  schools  proper)  After  the 
seventh  and  eighth  year  of  the 
higher  gills'  school  proper  three 
other  courses  branch  off  which 
lead  to  the  different  kinds  of 
Rcifeprufung  These  courses  are 
known  as  Studienanstalt.  The 
provision  of  adequate  facilities 
for  preparation,  corresponding  to 
the  education  of  the  gymnasium, 
will  lead  to  the  admission  of 
women  to  the  universities  as  fully 
recognized  students,  and  has  al- 
ready led  tf>  new  regulations,  to 
take  effect  in  1913,  of  demanding 
university  study  from  teachers  in 
the  higher  girls'  schools  (See 
Prettyman,  C  W  ,  Higher  Girls' 
Schools  in  Prussia  Teachers 
College  Rec ,  May,  1911)  The 
influence  of  the  Reform  Schools 
and  the  principles  therein  ex- 
pressed, a  common  foundation 
and  bifurcation,  will  be  easily 
recognized. 

The  following  tables  show  the 
system,  the  articulation  of  its 
parts,  and  the  different  curric- 
ula:— 


LYCEUM 

STUDIENANSTALT 

a 

b 

a 

6                  c 

Age 

Frauen-  Hbheres-Lehrer- 

schule        mnensemmar 
Oberreal-      Realgym-      Gym- 

Minimum  age       sehule          nasium        naamm 

at 

final  exami- 

na 

tion,  20  yeara 

19 

P  Practical 

Minimum 

age    at   final 

1         year 

examination,  19  years 

18 

[                     I 

1 

] 

17 

I 

1,          I 

i                       i 

, 

I                 ] 

I 

16 

h  

ill                  IJ 

I  .  I 

I  ^  —  -l 

I 

1 

Vlmimum  | 

a 

ge, 

10  years  1 

Higher  Gir 

\ls'  School 

15 

Upper   f 

:                    r 

T                        T 

/  ^  IV 

14 

stage 
4  yrs 

i 

f  ,  

HT^ 

13 

iji                                 i|i 

12 

.    IV    Engl.sh  br«un 

Minimum  age 

12  years 

11 

Middle 

\ 

r                             NOTE       The 

perpendicular 

stage 

st 

rokea  (|)  de 

note  tranm 

tion 

3  yrs 

fr 

om  one  clas 

s  to  auothe 

r  or 

to  another  department, 

the 

h< 

3nzontal    br 

ackets    (  —  . 

'  —  ) 

., 

indicate     the 

possibility 

of 

giving  instruction  in  common 
in  certain  subjects  to  pupils 

10 

\ 

I                              in 

different  c 

lasses. 

0 

.vJ 

I   French  begun. 

Minimum  age, 

9  years 

8 

Prepar- 

VIII 

7 

atory 
school 

! 

L 

G 

X     Entrance  age. 

6  years 

COURSE  OF  STUDY  OF  THE  HIGHER  GIRLB'  SCHOOL  PROPER 
a     Literary  and  Scientific  Subjects 


LOWER 

STAGS, 

MIDDLE 
STAGE 

UPPER 

STAGL 

TOTAL 

X 

IX 

VIII 

VII 

VI 

V 

IV 

III 

II 

I 

VII-I 

1.  Religion 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

A 

2 

2 

2 

2 

17 

2.  German 

10 

9 

8 

6 

5 

5 

4 

4 

4 

4 

32 

3    French 

— 

— 

6 

5 

5 

4 

4 

4 

4 

32 

4    English 

— 



— 

— 

— 

— 

4 

4 

4 

4 

16 

6    History  and  Art 

History 

— 

— 

— 

— 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

3 

13 

6    Geography 

— 

— 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

14 

7    Arithmetic  and 

Mathematics 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

21 

8    Natural  Science 

2 

2 

2 

3 

3 

3 

2 

17 

Total 

Ib 

15 

16 

22 

22 

22 

24 

24 

24 

24 

162 

b.    Technical  Subjects 


9.  Writing 

3 

2 

1 

1 

1 

_ 







3 

10.  Drawing 

i 

i 

i 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

14 

1  1    Needlework 



2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

i 

2 

2 

t 

6(14) 

12.  Singing  . 
13    Gymnastics     . 

i 

! 

1 

2 
2 

2 
2 

2 
2 

2 
3 

2 
3 

2 
3 

2 
3 

14 
18 

Total   . 

2 

7 

6 

9 

9 

9 

7(9) 

7(9) 

7(9) 

7(9) 

55(63) 

1  In    the    clasps  X-VIII    occasional  drawing 
object  lessons  in  German 

2  Needlework  is  optional  in  the  upper  classes 


and   olay  modeling  during  the 


GERMANY 


GERMANY 


COURSE  OF  STUOY  OK  THU,  LICEUM 
A.    FraueriHchule 


11 

I 

Total 

1    Pedagogy 

2 

2 

4 

2.  Household  Arts 

5 

5 

10     Including     practice     m 

cooking     and     house- 

3   Kindergarten- 

hold  management 

teaching  * 

4 

4 

S     Including  practice  work 

4    Hygiene      and 

in   kindergarten 

care  of  chil- 

dren 

4 

4 

8     Including  practical  work 

in  creches,  day  nurs- 

eries, and  nunung 

5    Civics  and  eco- 

nomics 

2 

2 

4     Including  vimtn  to  phil- 

anthropic institutions 

and  missions 

6    Bookkeeping 

(household) 

1 

1 

2 

7    Needlework 

2 

2 

4 

S    Religion 

9    German 

10    French,  English, 

Latin,  or  Ital- 

ian 

11     History.  Geog- 
raphy,    Sci- 

Each subject   ar  cording 
>•          to   circumstances  and 

ence 

needs  ,       two      hours 

12    History  of  Art 

each  per  week 

l.J    Gymnastics 

1  4    Drawing      and 

painting 

1  ">    Music 

1  Household  arts  and  kmdf  rgarten  teaching  may  be  HO  ,tr- 
rariged  that  In  the  first  >ear  only  the  former,  in  the  second  only 
the  latter,  are  taken  with  9  hours  per  week 

H     Training  College  for  Teachers  (Hnhere*  Lchrennnenseminar) 


Ac  ADEMIC  CONTINUATION 

"  ' 

CLASHES 

^tademic  Subjects 

PRACTICAL 

YEAR 

III 

II 

I 

Total 

Religion 

3 

3 

,J 

9 

1  2 

German 

,} 

3 

3 

(1 

•} 

French 

4 

4 

4 

121 

1  2 

Kngiish 

4 

4 

4 

12f 

H  istorv 

2 

2 

2 

61 

1  2 

Geography 

2 

1 

1 

4 

Mathematics 

4 

4 

4 

12 

1  s 

Natural  Science 

2 

3 

3 

8 

1  • 

Pedagogy 
Method  and  Model 

2 

2 

2 

6 

J 

Lessons 

(4)  i 

4 

Practice    Teaching 
Reports   and   Dis- 

4-6 

cussions 

8 

26 

20 

26 

78 

26 

(25-27) 

Technical  Subjects 

Drawing 
Singing 
Gymnastics       .     . 

2 
1 
3 

2 

1 
3 

1 
1 

r> 
,j 

9 

3 

1  Method  and  model  lessons  in  Class  I  are  included  in  the 
periods  given  to  each  subject  and  are  given  in  place  of  the  re- 
spective subjects  rather  than  as  separate  courses 

2  Method  and  introduction  to  professional  literature 
*  Method  and  introduction  to  experimentation 

The  curriculum  of  the  Studienanstaltcn  is 
almost  the  same  as  those  of  the  eoi  responding 
boys'  schools,  but  us  the  whole  course  lasts 


87 


thirteen  years  (instead  of  twelve  as  in  the  boys' 
schools),  the  number  of  recitations  per  week  is 
a  little  less  Those  who  have  completed  the 
course  of  any  of  the  Rtudicnanstaltcn  may  entei 
the  highest  class,  practical  year,  of  the  Seminar 

The  higher  girls'  school  proper  and  the 
Frauenschule  have  no  privileges,  the  Reifcpru- 
fung  at  the  end  of  the  Studicnamttalten  grants 
the  same  privileges  as  that  of  the  gymnasium, 
etc  As  at  present  there  are  only  about  35 
Studienanst  alien  in  Prussia,  and  as  the  girls 
are  not  admitted  to  boys'  schools,  manv  girls 
who  desire  a  higher  education  can  get  it  only 
with  difficulty,  especially  in  the  smaller  towns 
Financial  or  other  statistics  m  suitable  form 
are  not  available,  as  the  whole  system  of  girls' 
schools  is  in  a  rapid  process  of  reorganization 
and  readjustment,  it  would  m  any  case  be 
useless  to  quote  statistics 

Training  of  Teachers  for  the  Higher  Schools 
—  The  teachers  m  boys'  schools  are  men,  most 
of  them  with  university  training,  in  the  girls' 
schools  there  are  partly  men  and  partly 
women  teachers,  most  of  the  women  being 
trained  m  the  training  colleges  mentioned 
above,  though  an  increasing  number  of  women 
are  receiving  the  same  university  training  as 
the  Obcrlchici  Admission  to  the  profession 
of  teaching  in  all  the  states  is  dependent  on  the 
passing  of  a  special  examination  for  teachers  m 
higher  schools,  e  g  in  Prussia  (Prufunq  fur 
r/r/.s  Lehramt  an  hohcren  Kchnlen),  held  by 
special  examining  boards  and  independent  of 
the  universities,  and  also  a  course  of  practical 
preparation  of  from  one  to  two  years  A  uni- 
versity degree  is  not  a  qualification  for  a  teach- 
ing appointment,  although  professors  of  the 
universities  are  frequently  members  of  the  ex- 
amining boards 

The  Examination  in  Prussia  — To  be  ad- 
mitted to  the  examination  a  candidate  must 
hold  a  certificate  of  graduation  from  a  German 
higher  school  and  must  have  studied  for  at 
least  six  semesters  at  a  German  university 
As  a  rule  the  period  of  study  lasts  from  four  to 
five  years  or  more  The  examination  consists  of 
two  parts,  general  and  special,  and  both  are 
written  and  oral  The  subjects  of  the  general 
examination  are  the  same  for  all  candidates 
and  include,  philosophy  (the  most  important 
facts  of  its  history,  the  chief  principles  in  logic 
and  psychology,  the  knowledge  of  an  important 
philosophical  work) ,  pedagogy  (the  philosophi- 
cal principles  underlying  the  most  important 
facts  of  its  history  since  the  sixteenth  century) , 
German  literature  (general  development  from 
the  eighteenth  century,  the  knowledge  of  a  few 
important  works) ,  religion  (content  and  co- 
herence of  the  Bible,  general  outline  of  the 
history  of  the  Christian  church,  the  principal 
doctrines  of  the  denomination  of  the  candidate) 
In  the  special  examination  there  must  be  one 
of  the  following  combinations*  Latin  and 
Greek,  French  and  Kngiish  or  Latin,  history 
and  geography,  religion  and  Hebrew,  Greek, 


GERMANY 


GERMANY 


or  German,  pure  mathematics  and  physics; 
chemistry,  including  mineralogy,  and  physics, 
or,  in  place  of  physics,  botany  arid  zoology 
Other  possible  subjects  are  applied  mathe- 
matics, and,  occasionally,  Danish  and  Polish 
In  the  first  three  combinations  German  may 
take  the  place  of  any  one  subject  The  re- 
quirements in  any  of  the  subjects  mentioned, 
except  Hebrew,  are  divided  into  two  stages 
the  second  grade  covers  the  lower  and  middle 
classes  including  untersecunda  (minor subjects); 
the  other,  the  first,  includes  also  the  upper 
classes  (major)  A  candidate  is  successful 
when  he  satisfies  in  the  general  examination, 
and  passes  in  at  least  one  major  (first  grade, 
Lchrbefahigung  fur  die  crttte  tilufe)  and  two 
minor  subjects  A  large  number  of  subjects 
may,  however,  be  selected  by  the  candidate, 
as,  for  instance,  two  major  and  one  or  two 
minors  The  examination  is  conducted  as  fol- 
lows The  candidate  must  in  the  written 
examination  prepare  pnvatolv  two  essays,  one 
for  the  general  and  the  other  for  the  special 
examination  The  wishes  of  the  candidates 
are  considered  so  far  as  possible  Sixteen 
weeks  are  allowed  for  the  preparation  of  these 
essays,  although  an  extension  of  sixteen  moie 
weeks  may  easily  be  obtained  A  doctor's  dis- 
sertation or  some  other  printed  work  may  be 
accepted  in  place  of  one  of  the  two  essays  A 
further  written  test  of  at  most  three  hours' 
dmation  may  be  imposed,  and  is  in  any  case 
required  in  modern  languages  This  is  fol- 
lowed by  the  oral  examination  which  lasts 
about  an  hour  for  each  major  subject  and  half 
an  hour  for  each  minor,  although  these  periods 
are  nowhere  presmbed  definitely  Jteexarui- 
nation,  extension  and  supplemental y  examina- 
tions are  permitted,  but  not  more  than  twice 
for  each  one  of  these 

The  following  requirements  of  the  Prussian 
Examination  Ordinance  in  a  few  important 
subjects  are  added  to  indicate  the  scope  of 
knowledge  expected  — 

Latin  and  (Irtrk  — (a)  Second  grade  A  sound  knowledge  of 
(Jreek  and  Latin  grammar,  ability  in  the  written  use  of  both 
languages  so  far  as  to  translate  suitable  passages  with  gram- 
matical correctness  and,  in  Latin  at  any  rate,  without  any  strik- 
ing defects  of  style,  ability,  on  tin  basis  of  systematic  and 
thorough  reading  oi  the  classics,  to  understand,  and,  omitting 
passages  of  .special  difficult,  to  translate  readily,  selections 
from  works  suitable  for  Hekunda  in  the  gymnasium  Candi- 
dates must  possess  sueh  a  knowledge  of  Greek  and  Roman 
histoi\,  unhiding  the  history  of  literature  and  antiquities, 
mythology  and  prosody,  an  to  give  the  necessary  explanation  on 
those  points  of  authors  to  be  read  in  the  middle  stage,  and  to  he 
abk  to  i  mplo\  intelligently  good  reference  works  in  the  prepa- 
lation  of  lessons 

For  the  hrst  grade  the  additional  requirements  are  a  thorough 
ncicuttihc  knowledge  of  grammar  ,  teadiness  m  the  written  use  of 
Latin,  grammatical  coi  reel  ness  in  the  written  use  of  Greek,  and 
ability  to  apeak  Latin,  wide  reading  knowledge  of  the  Greek 
and  Roman  classics,  especially  such  as  serve  to  enrich  the  les- 
sons in  the  gymnasium,  and  scientific  training  m  tho  method  of 
explanations,  acquaintance  with  prosod\,  so  far  as  it  bears  on 
the  poets  to  bo  read  in  the  gymnasium,  and  practice  ID  appro- 
priate rendering  of  verse ,  a  knowledge  of  the  general  literary 
development,  particularly  the  best  periods,  sufficient  acquaint- 
ance to  guarantee  further  systematic  study  of  the  principal 
periods  m  Greek  and  Roman  history,  political  institutions,  pri- 
>atc  life,  religion  and  mythologv,  and  philosophy  of  the  CJiceks 
and  Romans,  a  knowledge  of  ,ir<  hteotogy  so  far  as  necessar\ 
for  effective  illustration  of  lessons  by  mtt  lligent  employment  of 
an  appropriate  solution  of  objetts  The  candidates  must  also 


give  evidence  of  a  knowledge  in  outline  of  the  development  of 
philology 

Enylmh  —  After  giving  evidence  of  a  knowledge  of  elemen- 
tary Latin  grammar  and  ability  to  understand  and  to  translate 
at  least  easy  passages  in  the  snhool  authors,  such  as  Cmsar,  the 
requirements,  in  this  subject  are  (a)  for  the  second  grade  A 
knowledge  of  the  elements  of  phonetics,  correctness  and 
thorough  familiarity  in  pronunciation,  a  knowledge  of  acci- 
dence and  syntax,  and  elementary  s\nonymik,  the  possession 
of  a  broad  vocabulary  and  knowledge  of  idiom,  and  some  abil- 
itv  in  oral  use  of  the  language ,  a  knowledge  in  outline  of  the 
development  from  the  lime  of  Shakespeare  of  English  literature, 
in  which  the  works  of  the  most  important  writers  in  prose  and 
verse  must  be  read  ,  readim  ss  m  eorree  t  translation  of  the  usual 
authors  into  German  and  in  free,  written  composition  in  the 
foreign  language  without  serious  errors  of  expression  and  style 
(The  rcquiiementM  in  French  are  very  similar  ) 

(b)  For  the  first  grade  In  the  written  and  oral  use  of  the 
language  there  is  expected  not  only  complete  grammatical 
correctness  based  on  a  scientific  study  of  gnimmar,  hut  a  thor- 
ough acquaintance  with  UK  \oc.thu1ar\  and  the  peculiarities 
of  idiom,  togcthc  rwith  a  satisfactory  abilitv  to  employ  them  for 
purposes  of  instruction  ,  a  knowledge  in  outline  of  the  develop- 
ment of  the  language  fiom  th<  Old  Tjighsh  period,  and  the 
general  development  of  literature  together  with  a  detailed  stud} 
of  the  moit  important  works  in  the  past  and  present .  familiar- 
ity with  the  rules  of  Knglish  prosody  in  the  early  anel  modern 
periods,  acquaintance  with  the  histor\  oi  Knglarid  so  far  as 
necessary  for  the  material  explanation  of  the  common  school 
authors  Where  the  knowledge  of  the  historical  elevelopment 
of  the  language  i^  not  so  detailed  M  v<  ry  able  und  thorough 
knowledge  of  modern  lit<  ratun  and  an  excellent  command  of  the 
modern  language  may  be  aceepteel  MS  an  equivalent 

Pure  MathfmaticK  —  (a)  For  the  second  grade  A  sound 
knowledge  of  elementary  mathematics  and  acquaintance  with 
analytical  plane  geometry,  especially  with  the  chief  qualities 
of  conic  sections  and  the  pnncipli  s  of  differential  anei  integral 
calculus  (6)  For  tin  first  grade  Su<  h  a  familiarity  with  the 
principles  c»f  lugh<  r  gi  omet  r;y  ,  arithmetic ,  algebra,  higher  analv- 
sis,  and  analytical  mechanics,  that  the  candidate  can  solve  a 
not  too  difficult  proble  rn  out  of  this  he  Id 

/Vi//siry  —  (n)  F<ir  the  Hecond  grade  A  knowledge  of  the 
more  important  principles  and  IRWH  out  of  the  whole  held  of  this 
science,  and  ability  te>  pn>y<  they*  laws  mathematical^  ,  so  lar 
as  possible  without  the  application  of  higher  mathematics,  an 
acquaintance  with  the  instruments  necessary  for  school  instruc- 
tion and  practice  in  using  them  (6)  For  the  first  grade  A 
more  detaileel  knenvlc  dge  of  experimental  physics,  and  its  appli- 
cations,  acquaintance  with  the  fundamental  investigations  in 
one  of  the  more-  important  branches  of  theoretical  physics,  and  a 
general  view  of  the  whole  field 

The  requirements  described  are  those  of 
Prussia,  and  they  are  snrnlai  in  other  states 
with  noteworthy  differences  in  Bavaria  and 
Wuittemberg  In  both  those  countue.s  eveiy 
candidate  has  to  pass  two  examinations  at  an 
interval  of  two  or  more  years,  and  the  prepara- 
tory work  to  be  done  at  the  university  is  more 
strictly  prescribed,  while  the  oral  and  written 
examinations  are  conducted  differently  (see 
Morsch)  Only  the  following  states  have 
agreed  to  mutually  recognize  their  respective 
examination  certificates,  Piussia,  Saxony,  and 
the  smaller  Saxon  states,  Meeklenburg- 
Schwenn,  Brunswick,  Alsace-Lorraine,  and 
some  of  the  smallest  states  which  have  no 
examining  boards  of  their  own 

Practical  Picparatwn  — The  ceitihcatc  of 
success  in  the  written  examination  does  not 
qualify  for  the  appointment  of  teacher.  Such 
qualification  is  obtained  only  by  practical  train- 
ing of  one,  but  generally  two  years  This  con- 
sists, according  to  the  Prussian  legulations,  of 
a  Seminar  year  and  a  probationary  year 

A  The  Sernmarjahr  —  During  this  year 
candidates  must  become  acquainted  with  the 
theory  and  principles  of  education  in  their 
application  to  the  higher  schools  and  with  the 
method  of  individual  subjects  of  instruction, 
and  must,  be  introduced  to  practical  work  as 
teachei  and  educator  For  this  purpose  they 


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GERMANY 


GERMANY 


arc  assigned  in  groups  of  eight,  or  ten  to  a  school, 
where*  at  least  two  hours  of  discussion  take 
place  each  week  chiefly  on  the  following  sub- 
jects: principles  of  education  and  instruction 
and  method,  especially  of  the  subjects  of  the 
candidates;  historical  survey  and  discussion 
of  contemporary  questions,  the  character, 
organization,  and  curriculum  of  the  higher 
schools;  the  school  ordinance,  principles  of 
school  discipline,  hygiene,  etc  ,  administrative 
authorities  and  their  organization;  service  regu- 
lations of  teachers;  and,  finally,  directions 
for  observation  of  lessons  The  candidates 
must  bring  short  reports  or  deliver  oral  lectures 
on  all  these  subjects  In  their  particular  work, 
they  must  acquire  by  class-room  visitation  a  sur- 
vey of  the  tasks  of  the  whole  school  The  trial 
lessons  of  the  candidates  begin  as  soon  as  pos- 
sible, and  the  problems,  which  at  first  are  kept 
within  narrow  limits,  are  generally  made 
broader  and  more  extensive  Each  candidate 
must  give  a  trial  lesson  about  once  in  four  weeks, 
at  which  all  the  candidates,  the  director,  and 
the  subject  teacher  must  be  present  This  is 
followed  by  a  general  discussion  and  criticism. 
About  two  months  before  the  close  of  the  year 
every  candidate  must  hand  in  a  somewhat 
larger  dissertation  which  demands  theoretical 
considerations  and  practical  applications  and 
should  be  based  on  the  candidate's  own  ex- 
perience and  observation 

B  The  Probationary  Year  (Probejahr)  — 
This  period  serves  mainly  to  afford  the  candi- 
dates practice  in.  the  application  of  the  educa- 
tional knowledge  and  ability  acquired  in  the 
seminar-year,  and  is  usually  spent  in  another 
institution.  The  candidates  are  intrusted  with 
larger,  more  continuous  problems  for  eight  or 
ten  hours  a  week,  always  under  the  more  or  less 
strict  supervision  of  the  director  and  those  teach- 
ers in  whose  classes  the  candidates  are  teaching. 
As  evidence  of  the  amount  of  pedagogical  in- 
sight attained  the  candidates  must  hand  in  a 
report  of  their  own  work  as  teachers  It  is  only 
then  that  the  certificate  qualifying  for  ap- 
pointment in  a  higher  school  can  be  granted, 
and  with  it  ends  the  training  of  the  young 
teacher 

Reform  in  the  Higher  Schools  —  Only  the 
most  important  of  the  reform  movements  and 
ideas  can  be  mentioned  here  without  any 
further  discussion  The  following  are  move- 
ments which  have  been  realized  here  arid  there 
without  any  general  acceptance  as  yet  the 
introduction  of  boarding  schools;  the  admis- 
sion of  girls  to  boys'  higher  schools  the  in- 
troduction of  biology,  philosophy,  and  civics; 
closer  attention  to  the  modern  scientific  theology 
in  religious  instructions,  and,  above  all,  greater 
freedom  and  consideration  of  the  interests  of 
the  pupils  in  the  upper  stage  Possibly  there 
should  also  be  added  here  the  frequent  demand 
for  more  professorships  of  education  The 
following  opinions,  which  have  remained  noth- 
ing more  and  of  which  one  or  the  other  may  be 

93 


realized  in  the  future,  mav  be  referred  to 
lessening  of  the  home  work  and  the  number  of 
subjects  in  the  curriculum,  establishment  of 
vocational  classes,  special  promotion  of  pupils 
of  more  than  average  ability,  separation  of  the 
upper  stage  and  the  establishment  of  an  inter- 
mediate institution  between  the  school  and  the 
university,  somewhat  like  the  American  college; 
and  a  number  of  other  radical  ideas  which  can- 
not be  mentioned  here  It  is  a  pretty  generally 
accepted  opinion  that  the  German  higher  school 
system,  as  at  present  organized,  cannot  last  any 
length  of  time,  but  how  it  is  to  be  reformed 
is  a  problem  But  those  concerned  in  it  are 
convinced  that  reform  will  not  be  brought  about 
by  a  revolution,  but  by  gradual,  even  slow,  but 
unceasing  development  P  Z 

UNIVERSITIES  —  Historical  —  (I)  Al- 
though the  German  universities  are  con- 
siderably younger  than  the  famous  Studia 
gc  net  all  a  of  Italy,  France,  England,  and  Spam, 
Germany  fiom  the  beginning  played  an  im- 
portant part  in  medieval  culture  At  Bologna 
and  Paris  German  students  and  teacheis  made 
very  creditable  contribution  to  the  universities, 
and  in  Germany  itself  schools  of  the  orders  like 
the  Dominicans  and  Franciscans  at  Tologne, 
where  men  like  Albertus  Magnus,  Thomas 
Aquinas,  and  Duns  Scotus  taught,  were  close 
rivals  of  the  foreign  universities  But  the  uni- 
versities proper  only  sprang  up  in  Germany 
in  the  middle  or,  if  the  whole  of  present  Ger- 
many is  considered,  towards  the  end  of  the 
century 

In  order  'of  tune  two  groups  may  be  dis- 
tinguished (1)  1340-1415  Prague  1349, 
Vienna  1365,  Heidelberg  1385,  Cologne  1388, 
Erfurt  1392,  Leipzig  1409,  Rostock  1419 
By  the  establishment  of  a  xludnim  general? 
at  these  places  the  educational  organization 
of  Southern  and  Western  Europe  was  tiaris- 
planted  into  German  territory  (2)  1456- 
1506  Greifswald  1456,  Freiburg  1457,  Basle 
1459,  Ingolstadt  1472,  Trier  1473,  Mainz  1477, 
Tubingen  1504,  Wittenberg  1504,  Frankfort- 
on-the-Oder  1506  (q  v)  The  establishment 
of  these  institutions  was  a  natural  consequence 
of  the  new  intellectual  movement  of  the  time, 
the  Renaissance,  but  a  greater  cause  was  the 
concentration  of  political  power  in  the  hands 
of  territorial  princes  To  strengthen  their 
influence  these  rulers  confined  the  clerical  and 
intellectual  life  within  their  own  borders  and 
found  need  for  their  own  territorial  university 
All  these  universities,  including  the  older, 
did  not  originate  independently  as  did  Pans 
out  of  the  association  of  famous  teachers  and 
their  students,  but  definite  political  aims  con- 
tributed to  the  rise  of  each  Hence  the  life 
of  the  students  was  not  regulated  by  a  demo- 
cratic constitution  similar  to  that  at  Bologna, 
but  the*  statutes  were  imposed  from  above, 
generally  modeled  on  those  which  had  in  the 
meantime  been  developed  in  Pans  However 
much  the  secular  power  may  have  done  for  the 


GERMANY 


GERMANY 


establishment,  granting  of  privileges  and  or- 
ganization of  a  university,  in  its  whole  work 
and  character  it  was  regarded  entirely  as  an 
ecclesiastical  and  clerical  institution  Not  only 
did  the  faculties  receive  the  right  to  teach 
and  grant  academic  honors  through  the  papal 
bull,  but  in  its  general  attitude  and  sympathy 
the  university  belonged  to  the  clerical  estate 
The  success  and  influence  of  these  numerous 
universities  on  the  culture  of  Germany,  in 
spite  of  the  ridicule  of  the  humanists  and  the 
charges  of  the  Reformers,  were  both  very  great 
Neither  movement  would  have  been  possible 
without  the  preparatory  work  of  scholasticism 
fostered  by  the  universities.  According  to 
Eulenhcrg's  investigations  about  the  year  1500 
there  were  from  three  to  four  thousand  natives 
and  some  two  thousand  foreign  students  in  Ger- 
many How  great  must  even  then  have  been 
the  number  in  the  German  population  of  uni- 
versity-trained men  ! 

(II)  At  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury scholasticism  was  driven  out  m  Germany 
as  elsewhere  by  the  humanistic  movement. 
But  just  as  the  triumph  of  humanism  seemed 
about  to  be  completed,  a  new  and  stronger 
movement,  the  Reformation,  began  and  de- 
stroyed almost  entirely  the  hopes  of  victory. 
Since  all  intellectual  activity  had  until  then 
been  clerical,  the  general  attack  on  cleri- 
calism was  bound  to  lead  to  a  vast  upheaval 
of  the  whole  educational  system  But  the 
confusion  was  soon  overcome,  for  in  the  first 
place  the  German  Reformers  required  for  the 
success  of  their  work  a  far  better  educated 
clergy  than  the  old  church ,  to  be  able  to  preach 
the  "  pure  word  of  God,"  the  pastor  must  have 
studied  Secondly,  the  secular  powers  also 
needed  a  thoroughly  well-trained  legal  pro- 
fession for  the  new  duties  which  were  thrust 
on  them  by  the  increase  of  territorial  rights, 
confiscation  of  church  property,  and  the  accept- 
ance of  Roman  law  Under  pressure  of  these 
needs  the  crisis  was  overcome  and  the  univer- 
sities in  Germany  became  tenitonal  institu- 
tions for  the  purpose  of  meeting  the  demand 
for  theologians  and  lawyers  The  deeper  the 
cleavage  between  the  Catholic  and  Evangeli- 
cal (including  Lutheian  and  Reformed)  churches 
became,  the  more  rigorously  was  the  terntoiial 
principle  applied  to  the  universities  New 
universities  were  added  in  great  numbers; 
Protestant  were  Marburg  (1527),  Komgsberg 
(1544),  Jena  (1558),  and  Helmstedt  (1576), 
Catholic  included  the  two  Jesuit  universities 
of  Dillmgen  (1549)  and  Wurzburg  (1582)  (qq  v  ). 
The  older  universities  were  also  reorganized 
to  meet  the  new  requirements  The  smaller 
principalities  and  free  towns  added  to  their 
gymnasiums  a  course  of  academic  lectures, 
for  such  an  "  academic  gymnasium  "  enabled 
the  poorer  states  to  train  up  theologians  and 
jurists  above  suspicion  from  among  their  own 
sons.  While  m  the  medieval  period  the  ma- 
jority of  the  students  had  been  content  with 


a  training  in  the  fourth  and  lowest  faculty, 
arts,  they  now  sought  a  professional  training 
in  law  and  theology,  with  the  result  that  the 
numbers  m  these  superior  faculties  increased 
Medicine  and  science  still  remained  almost 
insignificant.  Instruction  in  all  the  faculties 
had  taken  over  from  humanism  the  watch- 
word "  Back  to  the  sources,"  a  worship  above 
all  of  the  three  sacred  tongues,  and  for  daily 
use  a  number  of  new  textbooks,  but  m  practice 
there  continued,  even  m  Protestant  Germany, 
the  characteristic  forms  of  scholastic  method 
throughout  the  whole  of  this  period.  The 
intellectual  standard  of  the  universities  rose 
somewhat  during  this  period  as  compared  with 
the  earlier,  but  hardly  at  the  same  rate  as  the 
general  intellectual  progress  The  epoch-mak- 
ing science  of  the  day,  1he  mathematical,  was 
excluded  from  the  universities,  and  the  con- 
tributions of  Copernicus,  Galileo,  Kepler, 
Descartes,  Newton,  Leibnitz,  were  made  out- 
side of  these  institutions  Exhausted  as  they 
were  by  the  devastation  of  the  Thirty  Years' 
War  0618-1648),  the  universities  were  not 
111  a  position  to  continue  their  progress 

(III)  Research  in  modern  science,  which 
in  France,  England,  and  Italy  was  promoted 
by  academies  or  societies,  m  Germany  gradually 
began  to  center  round  the  universities  Leib- 
nitz, it  is  true,  had  already  in  J700  called  into 
existence  at  the  Royal  Court  in  Berlin  an  acad- 
emy modeled  on  the  Academic  des  Sciences 
in  Paris,  and  the  Royal  Society  m  London, 
followed  m  1757  by  the  establishment  of  the 
Gescllschaft  der  Wissenschaften  at  Gottmgen 
m  the  Kingdom  of  Hanover  But  the  intel- 
lectual modernization  of  culture  in  Germany 
did  not  proceed  from  the  associations  of  in- 
vestigators, but  from  the  professonal  chairs. 
Hence  the  academies  in  Geimany  are  up  to  the 
present  but  of  secondary  mipoitance  and  consist 
of  associations  of  university  professors  meeting 
for  definite  and  specialized  lesearch 

The  new  era  was  opened  by  the  establish- 
ment of  the  Prussian  University  of  Halle  in 
1694  as  a  conscious  protest  against  the  tradi- 
tional studies  The  modern  movement  was 
there  inaugurated  by  three  professors'  (1)  The 
pietist,  August  Hermann  Francke  (q  v  ),  who 
broke  through  the  pievailing  theological  ortho- 
doxy, (2)  the  leader  in  the  enlightenment, 
Christian  Thomasius  (qv),  who  swept  out 
of  existence  the  prevailing  forinahstic  preju- 
dices and  superstitions  in  political  and  ecclesi- 
astical law;  (3)  the  rationalist,  Christian  Wolff, 
who  tore  down  the  scholastic  barriers  between 
philosophy,  mathematics,  and  natural  science. 
The  modern  principle  of  academic  freedom 
now  begins  its  triumphant  course  Instruction 
is  now  marked  by  the  lecture  method  with 
which  is  introduced  the  use  of  the  vernacular. 
While  French  culture  above  all  had  exercised 
a  profound  influence  on  Prussia,  the  University 
of  Gottmgen,  founded  in  1737,  was  influenced 
by  the  connection  between  the  kingdom  of 


GERMANY 


GERMANY 


Hanover  and  England  (iottmgen  look  Halle 
as  a  model,  and  in  addition  to  jurisprudence 
promoted  the  study  of  the  natural  sciences  and 
introduced  the  modern  study  of  the  classics; 
not  the  mere  imitation  of  ancient  models  m 
poetry  and  eloquence,  but  a  complete  entering 
into  the  spirit  of  classical  antiquity  from  the 
literary,  historical,  and  aesthetic  standpoints 
Halle  and  Gottingen  were  followed  in  1743 
by  the  foundation  of  Erlangen  At  the  end 
of  the  eighteenth  century  the  new  ideas  had 
become  firmly  established  in  the  German 
universities 

(IV)  At  the  time  that  Napoleon  reorganized 
the  French  universities  on  the  principle  of  the 
strictest  possible  control  of  academic  learning 
and  teaching  (1808),  Prussia,  conquered  and 
deprived  of  all  power,  established  the  University 
of  Berlin  (1810)  on  the  widely  different  basis 
of  the  greatest  academic  freedom  Intellectual 
power  was  to  replace  what  Prussia  had  lost 
materially,  and  the  training  in  pure  idealism 
was  to  be  left  entirely  to  the  influence  of  truth 
and  freedom  While  the  universities  had 
hitherto  been  conducted  like  schools,  with  the 
professors  as  masters  and  the  students  as  ap- 
prentices, the  University  of  Berlin  was  to  be 
a  free  intellectual  working  community  with  the 
professors  as  masters  and  the  students  as  their 
assistants,  both  occupied  in  common  with  the 
solution  of  the  same  tasks  This  principle 
soon  found  its  way  into  all  German  universities 
and  laid  the  foundations  on  which  was  built 
up  Germany's  unique  position  in  international 
culture  Soon  after  Berlin,  Brcslau  (1811), 
Bonn  (1818),  and  Munich  (182fi)  were  founded 
A  number  of  the  older  and  smaller  universities 
had  disappeared  in  the  Napoleonic  period  No 
new  foundations  were  made  in  the  nineteenth 
century  in  spite  of  the  great  increase  in  popu- 
lation It  is  only  within  recent  years  that  it 
has  been  proposed  to  add  to  the  existing  num- 
ber of  universities.  In  1902  Munster  was 
transformed  from  an  Academy  for  Catholic 
Theologians  into  a  university  Recently  it 
has  been  agitated  to  establish  universities  on 
a  basis  of  voluntary  endowments  and  munici- 
pal grants,  arid  m  1914  such  an  institution  will 
be  opened  at  Frankfort-a -M  (qv),  while  an- 
other is  proposed  in  Hamburg,  Hitherto  it 
has  been  unnecessary  to  increase  the  number 
of  universities,  since  m  their  inherent  organiza- 
tion the  existing  institutions  have  been  much 
extended  and  have  become  specialized  The 
two  great  tendencies  of  the  nineteenth  century, 
the  great  specialization  in  the  intellectual  work 
especially  and  the  remarkable  development  of 
natural  science,  led  to  a  demand  not  only 
for  a  great  increase  of  instructors  and  a  narrow 
specialization  of  studies,  but  also  for  a  develop- 
ment and  a  constant  increase  of  all  the  numer- 
ous intellectual  institutions  connected  with  a 
university  Since  the  chief  aim  of  university 
instruction  is  to  make  men  of  the  students,  not 
only  imbued  with  the  spirit  of  their  subject, 


bill  ready  1o  rairy  it  forward  step  bv  stop,  the 
German  university  loquires  in  the  first  place 
learned  seminars  and  scientific  laboi  atones 
In  the  philosophic-historical  subjects  in  theol- 
ogy, jurisprudence,  philology,  etc  ,  the  seminars, 
in  which  the  master  and  his  assistants  investi- 
gate the  problems  in  their  field,  necessarily  re- 
quired in  the  course  of  the  nineteenth  century 
more  complete  equipment,  while  in  medicine 
and  the  natural  sciences  more  suitable  and 
more  specialized  clinics,  laboratories,  and  ex- 
perimental institutes  had  constantly  to  be  pro- 
vided Since  the  expenditure  on  the  institutes 
is  much  greater  in  the  larger  than  the  smaller 
universities,  a  certain  amount  of  inequality 
arose  among  them,  only  compensated  for  by 
the  fact  that  the  student  is  enabled  to  be  more 
directly  arid  personally  associated  with  hie 
director  in  the  smaller  than  in  the  larger  in- 
stitutes As  far  as  the  quality  of  professors 
is  concerned  there  is  no  distinction  at  the  dif- 
ferent universities  It  may  be  that  a  few 
places  have  one  or  two  men  of  repute  or  even 
geniuses  among  their  professors,  but  Germany 
is  thus  distinguished  from  other  countries  by 
the  fact  that  in  essence  all  the  universities  are 
alike,  and  the  same  may  be  studied  m  Freiburg 
or  in  Komgsberg  as  in  Beilm 

Present  Position  —  Relation  to  the  State  — 
Universities  may  be  established  only  by  the 
state  or  with  the  approval  of  the  state  All 
the  existing  umvcisities  arc  state  institutions, 
and  as  such  juristic  persons  in  public  law 
Their  rights,  however,  as  a  lesult  of  the  federal 
character  of  the  German  Empire  vary  some- 
what As  a  rule  they  are  not  based  on  legis- 
lation but  on  special  privileges,  statutes,  and 
ministerial  decrees  The  income  of  the  uni- 
versities is  very  slight,  and  only  a  few  have 
sufficient  interest-bearing  property  to  bo  able 
to  covci  an  appreciable  portion  of  then  main- 
tenance at  their  own  expense  Generally  they 
arc  maintained  by  the  state  The  state  uni- 
versity budget  must,  like  the  state  budget, 
generally  receive  the  approval  of  the  regular 
representative  bodies,  and  at  the  discussions 
the  public  can,  through  its  representatives, 
make  its  wishes  with  icfeience  to  the  univer- 
sities felt  The  states  do  not  allow  any  one 
to  hold  an  appointment  in  the  church,  in  the 
judiciary  or  higher  administrative  service, 
and  permit  no  one  to  practice  law  or  medicine 
who  has  not  studied  in  a  German  umvcisity 
and  then  passed  the  prescribed  state  examma 
tions  These  state  privileges  arc  more  im- 
portant for  the  universities  at  present  than  the 
right  to  grant  academic  degrees  The  au- 
thority in  Prussia  to  which  the  universities  are 
subjected  is  the  Mmistiy  of  Public  Worship 
and  Education,  which  appoints  a  representative, 
Curator,  or  Chancellor  for  each  university,  with 
charge  of  the  external  affairs 

The  internal  administration  is  in  the  hands 
of  the  universities  themselves  through  the 
Rector  and  Senate.  The  Senate  consists  either 


95 


GERMANY 


GERMANY 


DlflTBIBUTlUN      OK     Kxi'FNDITlMlFH      IN      PEH(,KN  I  AdIF      OF    THK 
TOTAL,    IN   PRUHMJAN    IJNIVfcHBI  riV  H       (l>rruxt<     Stdtmtlk,  \ol 

223,  p  7  ) 


1808 

1877- 
1878 

1887- 
1888 

189«- 
1897 

1  005- 
H)00 

1008- 
1909 

Cost  of  admm- 

ifltration 

507 

370 

3  4f» 

4  40 

4  11 

394 

Bulary    of  pro- 

feHHorw,  ot( 

4f>  ().r> 

11  01 

'W  00 

'«)  40 

27  OJ 

278r> 

Institute, 

etc-                  . 

47  07 

47  18 

47  18 

51  1)6 

55  45 

5604 

HoHtelw,    main- 

tenance, 

grants,  etc 

a  70 

2  JO 

1  <><> 

1  07 

1  30 

1  10 

Cost  of    build- 

ing          rates 

taxes      ,    .    . 

.i  10 

2  4r> 

{  01 

.i  7  i 

4  17 

420 

(Covering  of  de- 

creuHi'M         in 

receipts     un- 

foreneen    and 

mirpluH       ex- 

penditure 
Rent   iridernin- 

442 

3  03 

271 

254 

227 

227 

tieH     for     in- 

structtirH 

002 

5  38 

5  12 

4  77 

452 

of  several  full  professors  (ordentlichc  Profrtt- 
soicn)  or  generally  of  annually  changing  com- 
mittees of  the  same  body  The  Rector  or, 
in  some  states  where  the  hereditary  ruler  holds 
this  position,  the  Proreetor  is  elected  annually 
from  the  ranks  of  the  full  professors,  arid  his 
election  must  receive  the  approval  of  the  state 
He  presides  over  the  senate  The  professors 
are  civil  servants  with  certain  privileges.  Full 
professors  are  appointed  by  the  state  or  the 
ruling  prince  on  the  responsibility  of  the  Min- 
istry, when  as  n  rule  the  suggestions  of  the 
Faculty  or  the  university  are  respected  The 
state  also  appoints  associate  professors  (a?/,s- 
KprordcTitlichc  Profektwren)  and  confers  the  pro- 
fessorial) title  Again  the  universities  are  rep- 
resented in  the  legislature  of  the  state  by  each 
sending  one  professor  ex  offieio  to  the  Diet 
(uppei  House)  of  their  respective  state 

Relation  to  the  Church  — This  in  Germany 
is  in  some  ways  simplei,  in  some  more  compli- 
cated, than  elsewhere  It  is  simpler  in  that 
both  university  and  church  are  under  the  same 
authority,  both  being  state  institutions  Other 
denominations  than  the  evangelical  or  Roman 
Catholic  are  of  little  significance,  since  their 
membership  is  too  small  But  it  is  this  very 
close  connection  between  Church  and  State  that 
leads  to  great  complication  The  Catholic 
Church  is  opposed  to  the  fundamental  principle 
of  the  German  universities,  absolute  academic 
freedom,  while  a  strong  section  in  the  evangeli- 
cal church  is  at  any  rate  not  friendly  to  it 
This  m  view  of  the  strength  of  the  Catholic 
party  in  politics  leads  to  parliamentary  con- 
flicts on  the  question  of  intellectual  prescription 
and  on  the  so-called  destructive  activity  of  the 
"  atheistic  "  professors  So  far  as  individual 
theological  faculties  are  concerned,  the  op- 
ponents of  academic  freedom  in  the  evangelical 
church  seek  the  cooperation  of  the  local  synods 
in  filling  theological  chans  Hitherto  the  state 


authorities  liuvc  opposed  Ihese  tendencies. 
Yet  in  practice  some  concession  was  made  to 
them  in  filling  chairs  not  m  accordance  with 
the  qualifications  of  candidates  and  the  sug- 
gestions of  the  university,  but  on  the  basis 
of  distributive  justice  (jutititia  chstributiva) 
between  the  right  and  left  wings  of  the  clerical 
political  parties,  with  the  result  that  science 
invariably  suffered  In  the  Catholic  theo- 
logical faculties  the  present  modernist  move- 
ment has  caused  the  state  authorities  con- 
siderable difficulties;  what,  for  instance,  should 
be  the  attitude  of  the  state  when  a  professor 
of  theology,  appointed  by  the  state  with  a 
guarantee  of  academic  freedom,  refuses  to 
accept  the  prescription  of  his  church  in  his 
teaching ?  or  again,  when  a  university  receives 
into  its  midst  professors  who  have  taken  this 
oath  and  thus  have  abjured  their  freedom? 
A  solution  of  this  situation  has  not  yet  been  dis- 
covered The  following  Prussian  universities 
have  evangelical  theological  faculties:  Berlin, 
Bonn,  Breslau,  (Ireifswald,  Halle,  Komgs- 
bcrg  (all  for  the  old  Prussian  state  church), 
Gottmgcn  (for  the  state  church  in  the  Prussian 
province  of  Hanover),  Marhuig  (for  the  state 
church  in  the  province  of  Hesse-Nassau),  and 
Kiel  (foi  the  state  church  in  the  province  of 
Schleswig-iiolstein)  Besides  there  are  evan- 
gelical theological  faculties  at  Erlangen 
(Bavaria),  Leipzig  (Saxony),  Tubingen  (Wurt- 
temberg),  Heidelberg  (Baden),  Giessen  (Hesse), 
Rostock  (Mecklenburg),  Jena  (Thurmgian 
States),  Strassburg  (Alsace-Lorraine)  Cath- 
olic theological  faculties  exist  m  Prussia  at 
Bonn,  Breslau,  and  Munster,  in  Bavaria  at 
Munich  and  Wurzburg;  in  Wurttcmberg  at 
Tubingen,  in  Baden  at  Freiburg,  in  Alsace- 
Lorraine  at  Strassbuig  These  university 
faculties,  however,  do  not  suffice  for  the  demand 
for  the  Catholic  clergy  in  Germany,  and  there 
are  in  addition  six  state  Lyceums  (five  in  Bava- 
ria and  one  m  Prussia)  in  which  the  professors 
are  appointed  by  the  state,  one  espicopal 
Lyceum  in  Bavaria,  and  seven  episcopal  theo- 
logical institutions  (six  in  Prussia  and  one  in 
Lorraine)  in  which  the  professors  are  ap- 
pointed by  the  bishops  Athough  several 
universities  retain  their  denominational  title 
from  their  origin,  e  g  the  Evangelical  Univer- 
sity of  Halle,  they  are  in  fact  wholly  unde- 
nominational Jews  are  admitted  to  the  teach- 
ing bodies  everywhere  m  a  percentage  far  above 
their  number  m  the  population  However, 
the  complaints  of  the  Jews  that  they  are  over- 
looked for  promotions  are  not  rare  and  fre- 
quently not  without  reason. 

Organization  — The  universities  are  still 
organized  according  to  tradition  into  four 
faculties.  No  university  has  less  than  four 
faculties,  only  the  recently  founded  University 
of  Munster  is  still  without  a  medical  faculty. 
In  single  instances  only  is  there  a  faculty  of 
political  science  as  distinct  from  that  of  law, 
and  a  mathematical-natural-science  as  distinct 


GERMANY 


GERMANY 


from  the  philosophical.  In  a  broader  sense  the 
faculties  include  the  whole  corpus  acadenucutn, 
the  teaching  body  as  well  as  the  students 
In  the  narrower  sense  the  faculty  consists  only 
of  a  section  of  the  teaching  body,  the  full  pro- 
fessors in  the  respective  faculty  These  elect 
annually  from  their  midst  a  dean  as  director 
of  their  business  They  are  responsible  for 
the  regular  conduct  of  instruction  in  their  field, 
suggest  names  to  the  Minister  in  filling  vacant 
chairs,  for  the  distribution  of  definite  courses 
to  other  instructors,  for  the  promotion  of  pri- 
vate docents  (q  v )  and  associate  professors, 
etc  They  further  arrange  the  schedule  of 
lectures  and  arrange  the  hours  among  them- 
selves, determine  on  the  admission  of  private 
docents,  and  aic  the  authority  responsible  for 
the  conferment  of  academic,  degrees 

The  full  professors  (ordenthchc  Professor  en, 
otdmarn)  are  almost  the  sole  and  exclusive 
bearers  of  all  the  rights  of  the  academic  teach- 
ing bodies  Each  of  them  has  a  teaching  com- 
mission foi  a  definite  subject  and  is  as  a  rule 
bound  to  conduct  a  more  comprehensive  private 
course  in  his  field  and  one  free  public  lecture 
of  one  01  two  hours  He  receives,  first,  a  defi- 
nite salaiy,  as  a  rule  4000-6000  M  ($800- 
1200)  a  vear,  and  a  slight  indemnity  for  rent, 
secondly,  the  fees  paid  by  the  students  for  the 
private  courses,  usually  5  M  an  hour  each 
semester  (although  in  Prussia  when  fees  exceed 
3000  M  ,  half  of  the  excess  must  be  paid  into 
the  treasury),  thirdly,  increments  granted  at 
the  discretion  of  the  Minister  who  wields  a 
great  power,  fourthly,  fees  for  graduation  and 
examinations  Professors  of  medicine  conduct 
to  some  extent  then  private  practice,  and  as 
compared  with  the  great  income  from  this 
source  then  salary  is  insignificant  Similarly, 
professors  in  other  applied  sciences  frequently 
have  considerable  additions  to  their  salaries 

In  addition  to  the  full  professors  there  are 
a  number  of  others:  (1)  Honorary  full  pro- 
fessors who  have  the  rank  of  full  professors 
but  nothing  more;  (2)  titular  professors  or 
private  docents  who  have  only  the  title  of  pro- 
fessor but  nothing  more  (3)  Associate  pro- 
fessors (amserordentliche  Profexxorcn,  ertraor- 


dinaru}  are  divided  into  two  classes  according 
as  their  salaries  arc  or  are  not  permanently 
included  m  the  university  budget  The  latteV 
receive  no  salary,  though  they  often  receive  a 
remuneration,  as  when  they  are  assigned  to 
give  a  definite  course  Such  assignments  are 
also  made  occasionally  to  private  docents 
The  deciding  question  in  this  confusion  of 
titles  and  positions  is  whether  an  instructor  is 
provided  for  m  the  budget,  for  although  he  does 
not  as  a  consequence  receive  a  seat  or  a  voice 
in  the  faculty,  yet  his  teaching  is  recognized 
as  within  the  university  Of  greater  impor- 
tance, however,  in  the  applied  sciences  is  it 
that  he  conduct  his  own  institute,  and  is  thus 
independent  of  other  professors  In  the  case 
of  private  docents  it  is  to  some  extent  a  limita- 
tion of  this  academic  freedom  that  they  are 
dependent  on  the  good  will  of  full  professors 
for  the  use  of  equipment  in  the  applied  sciences 
The  number  of  associate  or  extiaordmary  pro- 
fessors is  very  large,  since  with  the  constant 
specialization  in  all  sciences  and  the  com- 
paratively slow  increase  of  full  professorships 
the  work  of  the  university  could  certainly  not 
be  carried  on  The  salary  of  an  associate  pro- 
fessor who  is  paid  by  the  state  rises  in  Prussia 
from  2000  M  to  4000  M  in  twenty  years 
Many  piofessors  never  rise  above  the  grade 
of  associate  professor  because  there  is  no  full 
professorship  at  all  in  their  subject 

The  ranks  of  the  piofessors  are  as  a  rule 
filled  from  among  the  private  docents  (See 
DOCENT  for  method  of  appointment,  etc  )  It 
is  the  exception  for  a  man  to  be  called  from 
practical  work  as  pastor,  judge,  doctor  to  fill 
a  chan,  but  in  some  faculties  is  not  quite  so  rare 
an  occurrence* 

A  number  of  young  scientists  are  also  em- 
ployed to  assist  the  .professors  Frequently 
in  the  applied  sciences  a  pnvate  docent  is  also 
appointee!  as  assistant,  in  such  cases  his  de- 
pendence on  the  full  professor  is  thus  corre- 
spondingly greater 

Student  Bodi/  —  The  requirement  for  ma- 
triculation as  student  m  a  German  university 
is  the  possession  of  the  maturity  certificate 
(Rcifuzeugms)  of  a  secondary  school  (Gym- 


NUMBER  OF  INSTRUCTORS  IN   THE  GERMAN   UNIVERSITIES 

(Prcuim   Statmtik,  \ol    '22 3,  p   26) 
a.    Full  Professors  b     Associate  Professors  c     Private  Docenta 


E\  ANGELICAL 
THKOLOGY 

CATHOLIC 
THEOLOGY 

LAW 

MEDICINE 

PHILOSOPHY 

TOTAL 

Winter 

Semester 

a 

b 

r 

a 

6 

c 

a 

6 

c 

a 

b 

( 

a 

b 

< 

a 

b 

c 

1896-7 

101 

22  » 

27 

51 

7 

6 

143 

25 

35 

198 

16,* 

223 

521 

242 

280 

1015 

459 

571 

4-5 

4-1 

4-5 

4-5 

4-34 

4-50 

1896-7 

109 

32 

31 

55 

11 

5 

155 

26 

40 

215 

213 

289 

556 

293 

388 

1090 

575 

753 

-1-5 

4-2 

4-12 

4-11 

4-46 

4-76 

1908-9 

119 

41 

34 

63 

16 

19 

104 

51 

47 

251 

2(>0 

497 

650 

403 

511 

1247 

771 

1108 

4-5 

4-5 

4-17 

4-34 

4-oO 

4-121 

i 

VOL   in  —  H 


The  addition  iek»rs  m  ever>  r.is<   lo  Honorai  \  Professors 

97 


GERMANY 


GERMANY 


nasium,  Realgymnasium,  or  Oberrealschule)     The 
certificate   of    certain    professional    schools    is 
also  accepted  in  some  universities  for  further 
study  in  the  special  subjects;   thus,  the  gradu- 
ates of  industrial  schools  are  under  certain  cir- 
cumstances permitted  to  take  up  the  study  of 
mathematics  and  natural  science,  or  graduates 
of  normal  schools  for  elemental  y  teachers  may 
be  admitted  for  the  study  of  pedagogy,  e  g   at 
Leipzig,  Jena,  Giessen,  and  Tubingen.     Women 
who  have  fulfilled  the  same  requirements  as 
men    are    also    matriculated,    although    there 
arc  individual   profossois    who   do   not  admit 
women   to   their   classes      Foreigners   are   ad- 
mitted   everywhere,    if    they   can  show    satis- 
factory    preparation      Besides    the    students 
there  are  further  registered  auditors  (Horer) 
At  Giessen  permission  to  visit  is  granted  by 
the  Curator  for  four  semesters,  which  may  be 
extended    to    six      Such    registration    is    only 
allowed  in  the  faculty  of  philosophy      Almost 
universally  the  students  enjoy   complete  free- 
dom of  study  (Lcrnfrcihcit),  but  since  the  leg- 
ulations    for    the    professional    examinations, 
which  are  taken  at  the  close  of  the  academic 
career,  prescribe  a  definite  course,  the  students 
in  most  subjects,  and  especially  law,  are  confined 
to  a  more  or  less  regulated  curriculum 

The  enrollment  in  the  summer  semester  of 
1011  was  57,330  distributed  as  follows  Evan- 
gelical theology,  1834,  Catholic  theology,  2825, 
law,  J 1 ,023 ,  medicine,  1 1 ,927 ,  philosophy, 
20,721  These  figures  include  2522  women  In 
addition  there  were  4060  auditors  The  stu- 
dents were  distributed  as  follows  in  the  indi- 
vidual universities:  Berlin,  6039,  Munich 
6942,  Leipzig,  4888,  Bonn,  4174,  Freiburg, 
3080,  Halle,  2681,  Broslau,  2586,  Gottmgen, 
2492,  Heidelberg,  2452,  Marburg,  2302,  Tub- 
ingen, 2118,  Strassburg,  2071,  Minister,  2009 
Kiel,  2001,  Jena,  1902,  Komgsberg,  1517, 
Wur/burg,  1449,  Giessen,  1315,  Greifswald, 
1180,  Erlangen,  1104,  Rostock,  920  (See 
also  COLLEGE  \ND  UNIVERSITY  STUDENT  AT- 
TENDANCE ) 

NUMBER  OF  STUDENTS  COMPARED  WITH  THE  EX- 
PENDITURE OF  THE   PRUSSIAN    UNIVERSITIES 

(7'rn/sA   Stuttntik,V<>\    22i,  p   7) 


1808-1800 
1877- 1H7H 
1887-1888 
18%  1897 
1005- 1900 
1908  1000 


No    o>        j    To  MI    1<J\- 
HTUDENIH       ppNDiiuui1 


7  US 

s;>io 

13  720 
U,8t>l 
20,25r> 
22717 


M 
3,SS(>  63  i 

7  007,047 

0  ISO  003 

11  117345 

1r>,42(>,084 

17,428,242 


STUDENT 


M 
530 

823 
(>G9 
824 
762 
700 


i  Covered  in  the  ninin  bv  thr  stnto  fund  partly  from  the 
property  of  the  um\ersit>  In  1'nissia,  two  thirdn  m  IKON,  and 
,n  1008  1909  thret  qmuters  <>f  tin  expenditures  were  borne  bv 
the  stnle  The  expetiditiiM  s  <>|  tin  non-Prussian  unixeisitiiH 
ure  UH  high  as  thiwe  ot  Pmssi  i 


The  students  are  partly  organized  in  free 
societies  (Corporahonen),  partly  unorganized 
The  method  by  which  the  student  organiza- 
tions among  themselves  or  for  the  whole  stu- 
dent body  form  committees  for  the  supervision 
of  student  interests  vanes  from  place  to  place. 
The  German  student  does  not  live  in  college 
or  similar  hostels,  but  in  private  houses  Hos- 
tels exist  only  for  Catholic  theological  students, 
and  at  Tubingen  also  for  a  number  of  evangel- 
ical students.  Elsewhere  there  are  small  en- 
dowments for  students  of  small  means.  Fees 
and  dues  are  low  Umveisity  life  only  be- 
comes expensive  when  the  student,  only  just 
out  of  school  and  entenng  on  independence 
but  with  high  spirits  and  small  financial  ex- 
perience, adopts  an  expensive  mode  of  life 
Extravagance,  however,  is  foreign  to  the  Ger- 
man student  or  is  confined  to  a  small  circle,  as 
at  Bonn  and  Heidelberg  But  generally  the 
men  lead  a  steady  life  and  work  with  a  will, 
despite  their  great  freedom 

The  period  of  attendance  at  tho  university 
varies  with  the  different  faculties.  The  follow- 
ing are  the  number  of  semesters  spent  on  the 
average  in  the  last  decade*  Evangelical  the- 
ology, 737,  Catholic  theology,  704,  law, 
686,  medicine,  11  00;  philology  and  history, 
910,  mathematics  and  natural  science,  888 
The  academic  degree  which  pievails  m  the 
legal,  medical,  and  philosophical  faculties  is 
still  only  the  Doctorate  (Di  Jui  ,  Dr  Med.; 
Dr  Phil  )  In  the  theological  faculty  there 
are  two  degrees,  the  licentiate  and  the  doc- 
torate (Lie  Theol  and  D  Theol  )  All  these 
degrees  are  of  practical  significance  only  to 
those  who  look  to  an  academic  career,  other- 
wise they  are  merely  ornamental  They  may 
be  obtained  in  course  by  tho  presentation  of 
an  independent  work  of  scientific  value  and 
an  oral  examination  before  the  faculty,  or  they 
are  conferred  honoris  causa  The  doctoiate  in 
theology  LS  now  only  conferred  as  an  honorary 
degree  The  technical  term  foi  graduation  is 
Promotion  Modeled  on  the  university  degrees 
is  the  title  of  Doctor  of  Engineering  (Dr.  Ing  ), 
conferred  by  the  technical  high  schools 

In  addition  to  the  universities  there  is  an 
appreciable  number  of  technical  high  schools, 
commercial  academies  and  high  schools,  acade- 
mies of  forestry  and  mining,  veterinary  and 
agricultural  high  school  To  these  must  be 
added  the  military  school,  such  as  the  war 
academy,  artillery  and  engineering  schools 
More  intimately  connected  with  the  universi- 
ties, in  aiming  not  at  professional  education,  but 
at  intellectual  advancement,  are  the  public  lec- 
ture couiscs  at  the  institutions  at  Frankfort-a.- 
M  (</?'),  Cologne,  and  Hamburg,  the  Royal 
Academy  at  Posen,  arid  the  Berlin  Academy 
for  Medical  Training  for  the  Army,  equivalent 
to  a  medical  faculty  In  university  extension 
work  significant  beginnings  hu\c  been  made 
in  Berlin  (Humboldt  Academy,  Free  High 
School,  Society  for  Popuhu  Course  by  Berlin 


GERMANY 


GERMANY 


University  Instructors),  at    Dresden    (Gehcstif- 
tung),  and  at  Frankfort-a  -M 

LEARNED  SOCIETIES  —The  societies 
and  associations  for  the  advancement  of  learn- 
ing are  divided  into  two  classes:  the  academic 
or  royal  societies  subsidized  by  the  state,  and 
the  general  associations  founded  privately  to 
promote  some  branch  of  study  Such  associa- 
tions vary  in  the  character  of  their  work  and 
contributions  from  the  small  local  society  of 
amateurs  and  public  school  teachers  to  the 
academic  society  consisting  of  carefully  trained 
specialists  It  is  calculated  roughly  that  there 
are  about  one  thousand  associations  founded 
for  purposes  of  promoting  studies  throughout 
Germany  None  of  these  attempt  any  in- 
struction beyond  the  reading,  discussion,  and 
circulation  of  reports  among  members  Some 
offer  prizes  for  works  of  original  research  on  a 
prescribed  theme,  others  for  woiks  on  any 
topic,  others  again  subsidize  the  cairvmg  out 
of  some  piece  of  research  11  is  impossible 
here  to  do  more  than  to  mention  the  state  en- 
dowed academies 

The  earliest  German  academy  is  the  Kaiser- 
lick  Leopoldmisrh-Karnlimsrhr  dcutuhe  Akade- 
mie  der  Naturforschcr  founded  in  1062  as  the 
Aeademia  nature?  curiowrnni,  which  was  at 
first  devoted  to  the  study  of  the  medical 
sciences  and  now  covers  the  sciences  generally 
The  academv  has  no  pennanent  location, 
except  for  its  library  in  Diosdon,  arid  its  seat 
changes  with  the  home  of  the  president  for 
the  time  being.  The  Koiuqhehe  Akndemic  der 
Wi88en*rhaftcn  was  established  in  ISerlm  in  1700 
by  Fiedonck  I  on  the  suggestion  of  Leibnitz, 
its  first  president  It  Avas  reorgani/cd  after  a 
period  of  decline  in  1744  and  opened  with  gieat 
ceiemony  by  Frederick  the  Gieat  (f/v)  The 
fields  of  knowledge  which  arc  coveicd  by  the 
academy  arc  mat  hematics,  physics,  philosophy, 
and  history-philology  The  niembeis  are  di- 
vided into  ordinary,  foreign,  honorary,  and  cor- 
responding Transactions  and  proceedings  are 
published  To  the  credit  of  this  academy  fall 
the  publications  of  the  CM  pus  Invert  phonum 
Groeearum,  Corpus  Inscnptumum  Latinarum, 
Corpus  Insert  phonum  Attiearinn,  the  woiks  of 
Aristotle,  and  the  Momnnenta  Germarnoc  7//<s- 
tonca,  all  woiks  which  can  be  better  undoi- 
taken  by  an  institution  having  some  continuity 
than  by  an  individual  The  Koruglxhe  GewU- 
sehaft  der  Wiwnwhaften  was  established  at 
Gottingen  in  1751  and  reorganized  m  1893 
It  consists  of  two  classes,  —  mathematical- 
physical  and  philological-historical  At  Munich 
there  was  founded  in  1759  the  Komglirhe 
Bayer ische  Akadcmie  der  Wisxensrhaften  which 
devotes  itself  to  mathematical-physical,  philo- 
sophical, and  historical  studies,  although  origi- 
nally founded  for  the  last  only  The  Konig- 
hche  Sachbtsehe  Geselhchaft  der  Wissenschaftcn 
at  Leipzig  was  established  in  1840  and  incor- 
poiated  with  itself  the  Fui^thch  Jahlonoa- 
GcMilwhufl  der  WiSNCtibchaften  (founded 


in  1708)  for  the  study  of  mathematical-physical 
and  historical-philological  subjects  There  are 
further  the  academies  which  arise  out  of  the 
connection  m  modern  times  between  the  arts 
and  sciences,  e  g  the  Academy  at  Heidelberg 
(f.  1909),  and  the  Kaiser- Wilhelm  Academy  in 
Berlin  (f  1910)  F.  M.  S. 

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History    — 

BARNARD,  H      German  Educational  Reformers      (Hart- 
ford, 1878  ) 
German    Pedagogy,    Education,    the    School,   and    the 

Teacher  in  German  Literature       (Hartford,  187f>  ) 
BARTHOLOME       Die  Ford(rung  dc&   V 'oik t>vchulwr t>en\  im 

Staate  der   Hohenzollcrn,    gevchichthcher  Rilckbhck 

(Duasoldorf,  1()07  ) 
BEYER,  O.  W      Deutsche  tfchulwelt  dtt>  l^ten  Jahrhun- 

derts  im  Wort  und  Bild.     (Leipzig,  1903  ) 
DEUTSPHMANN,  E      Du     Schidcera    Folk      (Frankfort- 

u  -M  ,  1884  ) 
DITTES,   F      Gcschichte  der  Erziehung  und  des    Ihiter- 

richts      (Leipzig,  1878  ) 
DORPFELD,    F    W      Kin   Beitrag  zur  Leidcn^gesehichtc 

der  Volkwchule       (Barmen,  1892  ) 
FISCHER,  K       Gesehichtc  dcs   dcutschen    VolkssthuUchr- 

crt,tandeK      (Berlin,  1898  ) 
HKKILNMOOHER,      J       und    BOCK,     A      Gtschichte   der 

Padagogik  und  Uberbhek  der  Gcachichle  d(.r  Pada- 

gogik       (Mumrh,  1909  ) 
HEPPE.  H    L    J      Gfuchuhte  det>  deutschen  Volkfwchul- 

wesens      (Ootha,  1858  ) 
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acit  der  Mitte  d   17   Jahrhundnts       (Berlin,  1906  ) 
KAKMMEL,    ()       Gewhichte   de?   Ltipziger  Schulwefttn^ 

Vom    Anfange  dtt>  13    bis  gegcrt   die   Mitte  d<.s   19 

Jahrhunderts      (Ixjipzig,  190(J) 
KAMMFI^,   H    J       Ge^chiehU   dfx  deutsehen  Schulwcv  rc\ 

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schulwewriA       (Jierhn,  187,^  ) 

MERTZ,  CJ    K      Da*  tithulwcscn  der  dcutschen  Reforma- 
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Komgrmih  KcHhstn       (Leipzig,  1908) 
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vom    Anyang    dtt>    Mittelallvrn    bib    zur    gtgtnwart 

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7>a->  deutbche  Dildun(jswfi>cn   m  scintr  g< bchichtln hen 

Kntwuklung      (Leipzig,  190f> )     Transl   l>v  Lorenz, 

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York,  1908  ) 
PETERSILIK,     A      Das    offenthchc    Ihitcjuchtzwcuen   im 

deutmhcii  Ret  (he  <((       (Leipzig,  1897  ) 
KAUMER,  K    VON       Gwhichted  Padagogi k  vow  Wieder- 

aufhluhen    d     klut>*>     fltudieri    />/,s    auf  unsert    Ztit 

(Gutersloh,  1877   1880) 
REICKE,    EMIL      Lehrer    und    Untctnthtswesen    in    dct 

d<utRchen  V  <rgari(/enh( it       (Leipzig,  1901  ) 
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zig, 1900  ) 
RhiN,   W       Kn<ydopt)di*chi8  Handbwh  der  Pddagogik 

(Larigensnlza,  HUM  ) 
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neunzehnten  Jahihundert       (Berlin,  189i  ) 
SANDER,    F      Gt. \chichte   der    Vottt>schulc,    btsonders   in 

Deutsehtand ,     in    iSehmid,    K      A  ,    (je&chichte    der 

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nnd  Untemehtswesens       (Gotha,  1876   1887  ) 

Gesehichte  der  Erziehung      (Stuttgart,  1884-1902  ) 

SCHUI./E,  F  ,  und  SHYMANK,   P      Das  deutwhe  titudtn- 

tentum       (Leipzig,  1910  ) 
SEILER,  F       Gesehnhte  de\  deutsehen   U ntemchhwctenh 

(Leip/ig,  1906  ) 
SPR.CHT,     F      A      Ge^(hiehte    r7fs    Unttn  ichtswesens     in 

Dfntttthhrnd         bits  zur  mttk  den  !.-<     Jahrhundt it* 

(Stuttgart,  1885) 


99 


GERMANY 


GERMANY 


BHRANUER,  E       Wilh    r    Humboldt  und  die  lit  form  ties 

BildungnweiH'tiN      (Berlin,  1910) 
STRACK,  K      Gcschuhte  den  deuttschen  Volkuschulwesens 

(Gtitersloh,  1872  ) 

General  — 

Baynache  Untemchtmttahatik  fur  1407- 190S      Voroff   d 
Kgl   Ba>i    HtatiHt   Landesamts   1904,  NOB    i  and  4 
England,  Hoard  of  Education,  Xjmml  Re/writ,  Vol    IX, 
Education  in  Germany,    Vol    XI\,  School  Train- 
ing for  Homo  and  Duties  of  Women,  Pt   III 
FoERHihii,  F    \\       ./ufjendtthn       (Berlin,  1407  ) 
GURU  11,  L      Der  Deutache  und  ueuie  S<hulc      (Berlin, 

1900) 

Erzichung  zur  Mannhn/t       (Beihn,  1907  ) 
HUUIIEH,  H    E      Schools  at  Home  and  Abroad      (New 

York,  1902  ) 
KERMrHLNHTLiNk.it,    (1       GrundfraQen    der   Schulorgani- 

8(ition        (Leip/ig,   1004  ) 

D   Hear  iff  d  NtaatNhurgerl     Krziehuny     (Leipzig,  1910  ) 
Die  stdatHburgerhcHf    Erzuhung  dei   deutbthfn  Jugtnd 

(Erfurt,  1909  ) 
KitfciZHCHMAii,    F      Handhiuh   d<r   prcu88it>ihcn   Sthul- 

rrthts       (Leipzig,  1X99  ) 
KHUKLNBKIK.,     E      Jugi  ndcrziehung     und     Volkttwohl- 

fahrt      (Beilm,  1908  ) 
L\ACKL,      K  ,     und      UbBLiMriiAKH,    M       Sihulrt ( ht*- 

Lexiron      (LHiigcrisalia,  1906  ) 
LLMH,  W       l'tit(irichtt>uwn  mi  deutschen  Reich,  0  \olh 

(Berlin,  1904  ) 

A    (fr rural    Vnw  of  th(    History  and  Organization   of 
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hultnr  dcr  Gcvenwuit       (Berlin,  1906  ) 
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<JCJH  rum  nttll(  P(idd(/o(/tl\       (Leip/ig,  1907) 
NAIOKP,  P      hozuiljrtdagogik       (Stuttgart,  1904 ) 
Padagogwhrs  Jahrlnuh       (Borhn,  annual  ) 
PadayofjixctH1  Jahn'NM  huii       (Leip/ig,  annual  ) 
PAMZKOVVHKI,    V\       Ihrltn    in    VV /*«( tischa/l    u     Kun.^f 

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RLIN,     W      I'tidagogik     in   *yntcrnati8cltcr    Dai  bit  Hung 

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KKIN,    W,    PICKFL,    A,    Sc  IIELLKH,    E       Thioru.    und 
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Bildungswescn      (Stuttgart,  1883) 

TKWH,  J       Rchulkampfi  dvr  Gegenwart       (Leipzig,  1900) 
WILLMANN,    O      DidaktiL    altf   Btldungslehre      (BiuiiH- 
wiek,  1903  ) 

Elementary    — 

BREMEN,  VON  Die  /treu^iitthf  Volhs8<hule,  Gwtzc 
und  \erordniingen  (Berlin,  1905) 

Das  gtsamti  Erzichunga-  und  I'ntonchttiwrscn  in  den 
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1899  ) 

England,  Board  of  Education,  Special  Reports,  Vol 
XXII,  Provision  made  for  Children  under  Com- 
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ENGLMANN,  J.  A  ,  und  STINOL,  E  Ifandbuch  des 
bayerischen  Volksschulrechtx  (Munich,  1905  ) 

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SCHRUUEK,  O  Die  Erteilung  der  Doktonnirde  an  den 
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Abiturientenexamen  In  Monument  a  Geimaniw 
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GERMANY,  EDUCATION  IN  THE  COLO- 
NIES OF  —  The  colonial  possessions  of  Ger- 
many by  their  position  and  natural  conditions 
of  soil  and  climate  represent  strategic  rathei 
than  commercial  value,  and  the  Home  Govern- 
ment has  no  motive  for  educational  efforts  in 
any  part  of  these  possessions,  comparable,  as 
regards  scope  and  system,  to  those  maintained 
by  the  British,  or  even  by  the  P>ench  govern- 
ments in  their  foreign  dependencies 

Beginning  with  Togolarid  on  the  slave  coast 
of  Upper  Guinea,  the  German  colonies  com- 
prise a  succession  of  "  spheres  of  influence  " 
bordering  on  the  ocean-washed  coasts  of  West, 
Southwest,  and  Eastern  Africa,  together  with 
groups  of  small  islands  in  the  Pacific  Ocean, 
and  the  port  town  and  district  of  Kiau-Chau 
in  the  Shantung  province  of  China  With  the 
exception  of  the  last  named,  the  conditions  of 
German  occupation  are  practically  the  same 
in  all  the  colonies  At  the  seat  of  government 
reside  the  imperial  governor  and  his  staff, 
military  posts  and  courts  of  justice  mark  the 
principal  places,  and  at  these  points  center  the 
schools,  government  and  missionary  These 
are  all  educational  influences  as  well  as  direct 
incentives  to  progress.  Native  interpreters 
are  needed  for  the  governor's  service,  natives 
are  trained  for  the  military  and  police  corps, 


and  are  subject  to  criminal  processes  in  the 
courts,  and  native  teachers  are  employed  in 
the  schools  Thus  individuals  selected  from 
the  mass  of  rude  tribal  peoples  become  familiar, 
in  some  slight  measure,  with  the  institutions  of 
orderly  society  In  the  East  African  colonies 
the  German  government  encounters  strong 
Mohammedan  forces,  and  consequently  formal 
education  becomes  a  matter  of  serious  im- 
portance An  effort  has  here  been  made  to 
establish  compulsory  school  attendance  in  re- 
stricted measure 

It  was  undoubtedly  the  impulse  of  commer- 
cial rivalry  that  prompted  the  colonial  enter- 
prises in  which  Gcimany  engaged  in  the  last 
quarter  of  the  nineteenth  century,  but  neither 
Africa  nor  the  Pacific  islands  have  so  far 
yielded  laige  returns  for  business  energy  or 
capital  Meanwhile  the  military  advantage  of 
these  possessions  has  become  more  and  more 
evident  Science  has  also  been  brought  to  the 
aid  of  ad ven tin c  m  efforts  for  utilizing  the 
natural  resources  of  these  lands,  constructing 
roads,  and  supplying  commercial  facilities, 
these  late  efforts  aie  giving  industrial  aim  to 
the  schools  that  have  been  established  under 
German  influences  The  following  statistics 
and  context  summarize  the  mam  particulars 
lelative  to  the  educational  woik  in  the  several 
colonies 

SCHOOL  STATISTICS      AFRICAN  POSSESSIONS 


POPUL  \IION 

GOVEHN- 

MICNT 
SCHOOLH 

MISSION 
SCHOOLS 

COLONY 

Date 

WhiU 

Native 

vJtf"  °f 

™°  j.PH/H/0 

No 

No    of 
IJu/nl* 

Togoland  .     . 

1909 

JJO 

1  ,000,000 

2 

275 

1  f»0 

0057 

Kameruii 

1909 

112713,000,000 

4 

2200 



19,000 

Gorman  South- 

west   Afriou 

1900 

13,701 

17S.OOO 

11 

377 



3000 

Gorman    East 

Afriou 

1909 

3387 

1,000,000 

3821 

~ 

16,500 

The  German  possessions  in  the  Pacific 
Ocean  comprise  two  groups  of  islands,  to  the 
first  group  belong,  German  New  Guinea 
including  Kaiser  Wilhehn's  Land,  Bismarck 
Archipelago  and  the  small  adjacent  islands, 
Caroline,  Pelew  Marianne,  Solomon,  and  Mar- 
shall; the  second  is  the  Samoan  group  includ- 
ing 8avan  and  TJpolu  The  estimated  native 
population  of  the  two  groups  is  about  450,000, 
the  non-native  colored  population,  mostly 
Chinese,  numbers  about  2000,  the  white  popu- 
lation, chiefly  German,  about  950  Mission- 
ary societies,  both  Protestant  and  Roman 
Catholic,  are  active  on  all  the  islands  The 
Samoaii  group  was  formerly  under  the  joint 
protectorate  of  Great  Britain,  the  United 
States,  and  Germany,  but  was  ceded  entirely 
to  the  latter  power  by  the  Anglo-German 
agreement  of  Nov.  14,  1899,  ratified  the 
following  year  by  the  United  States  As  a 


102 


GERMANY 


GERMANY 


result  of  the  prolonged  iclalion  \\itlr  Western 
Powers,  the  natives  of  these  islands  have  been 
Christianized  and  are  very  receptive  subjects 
of  missionary  instruction  A  (Herman  govern- 
ment school  with  about  90  pupils  is  maintained 
on  the  island  of  Upolu,  and  in  1909  nearly 
9000  pupils  were  under  instruction  in  mis- 
sionary schools  of  the  two  Samoan  islands 

The  seizure  of  Kiau-Chau  by  Germany  m 
1897,  and  the  subsequent  transfer  of  the  town, 
harbor,  and  district  to  that  Power  by  treaty, 
were  events  of  great  importance  m  the  move- 
ment which  is  gradually  transforming  the 
Orient  The  entire  area  of  the  German  Pro- 
tectorate is  200  square  miles  exclusive  of  the 
bay,  which  is  also  about  200  square  miles  in 
extent  The  civil  organization,  •  established 
before  the  German  arrival,  comprises  33  town- 
ships The  native  population  of  Kiau-Chau 
is  estimated  at  120,000,  and  the  European  at 
about  1200,  of  whom  1000  are  (Hermans  This 
number  does  not  include  soldiers  At  Tsmgtau 
the  government  has  established  a  college  for 
which  elaborate  plans  have  been  formed 
Two  departments  are  provided  for,  namely,  a 
preparatory  school  and  a  school  of  science 
The  preparatory  school  course  extends  over  six 
yeais,  taking  young  Chinese  of  at  least  thirteen 
years  of  age  These  students  must  have  had 
a  good  Chinese  education  and  be  qualified  foi 
the  lower  classes  of  high  schools  A  certificate 
relative  to  his  qualifications  must  be  sub- 
mitted by  the  scholar  seeking  admittance, 
obtained  after  examination,  which  is  indis- 
pensable, before  the  Chinese  examiner  at 
Tsman  and  the  inspector  of  studies  of  the 
college  at  Tsmgtau  Knowledge  of  the  (Her- 
man language  and  modern  sciences  is  not 
required  for  the  preparatory  school,  but  if 
newly  entering  scholars  have  such  knowledge, 
they  will  be  admitted  to  the  higher  classes 
An  examination  is  held  before  graduation  from 
the  preparatory  school,  which  must  be  passed 
m  order  to  obtain  admission  into  the  higher 
second  department 

The  school  of  science  consists  of  two  divi- 
sions (1)  A  department  of  law  and  political 
science,  and  (2)  a  technical  department,  in- 
cluding natural  history  The  program  of  the 
first  department  comprises  international  law, 
general  state  and  administrative  rights,  state 
laws,  railway,  mining,  and  maritime  law, 
political  economy,  finances  and  comparative 
cases  of  real  property  The  general  outlines 
of  a  process  or  suit  and  the  features  of  police 
administration  are  also  included  in  the  course 

In  the  technical  department  there  are 
laboratories  for  chemistry,  phvMcs,  electricity, 
mineralogy,  and  geology,  machine  building, 
mining,  etc  Students  of  the  higher  college* 
are  at  liberty  to  choose  their  vocations,  but 
must  then  strictly  comply  with  the  schedule 
The  students  of  the  first  term  class  admitted 
are  expected  to  remarn  at  college  for  four 
years,  out,  later,  discrimination  will  be  made 


when  the  students  eritei,  according  to  their 
knowledge  of  the  (Jet man  language,  so  that 
the  courses  will  occupy  the  following  periods: 
Legal  course,  three  years,  forestry,  three  years, 
building,  two  years,  technical,  four  years 

The  philosophical  course  will  be  taught  by 
Chinese  teachers,  a  medical  branch  is  also 
projected,  and  a  subeourse  will  be  given  in 
gymnastics,  music,  and  art  The  minimum 
age  for  the  school  of  science  is  twenty  years,  and  a 
good  knowledge  of  the  preparatory  courses  is 
essential  to  admission  If  a  student  wishes 
to  join  the  school  of  sciences  without  having 
attended  the  preparatory  school,  he  must  first 
pass  an  examination  in  both  Chinese  and  West- 
ern sciences,  including  the  Chinese  and  (Her- 
man languages 

The  present  staff  comprises  twelve  German 
tutor  sand  ten  Chinese  teachers  and  interpreters, 
as  the  number  of  students  grows  the  staff  will  be 
increased  A  translation  office  will  be  opened 
in  conjunction  with  the  college  to  piepare  the 
necessaiy  material  Arrangements  have  been 
made  by  the  managers  of  the  (Herman-Chinese 
high  school  to  open  a  free  course  of  lectures 
on  popular  scientific  subjects,  illustrated  with 
pictures  and  experiments,  for  the  benefit  of 
the  foreign  residents  Besides  these  lectures, 
an  evening  course  in  the  Chinese  language  and 
•script,  as  far  as  necessary  for  daily  use,  will  be 
given  for  the  benefit  of  the  (Herman  community 

A  colonial  department  was  organized  in  the 
Foreign  Office  at  Berlin  in  IS90,  and  in  1S99  a 
colonial  school  was  established  at  Witzen- 
hauscn,  near  Gottmgen,  with  the  express  pur- 
pose of  preparing  practical  farmers,  planters, 
stock-raisers,  and  fruit  growers  who  may  be 
inclined  to  settle  in  some  one  oi  the  (TCI man 
colonies  In  all  the  colonies,  graduates  of  the 
school  are  found  to-day  acting  as  business 
managers  for  (Herman  tiading  companies, 
owners  and  managers  of  plantations,  clerks  in 
the  government  service,  etc  The  course  of 
the  colonial  school  lasts  two  years  and  is  so 
arranged  that  the  theoretical  instruction  comes 
in  the  winter  and  the  practical  instruction  in 
the  summer  The  subjects  chosen  for  lectures 
are  those  which  will  add  to  the  pupils'  knowl- 
edge of  tropical  plants  and  agriculture  and  of 
colonal  enterprises  and  politics  The  studies 
include  such  branches  of  learning  as  chemistry, 
botany,  and  physics  The  institution  is  well 
supplied  with  laboratories  and  has  a  large 
farm  and  gardens  and  wood  land  for  the  study 
of  forestry,  vine  growing,  etc  The  trade 
shops  of  Witzenlmusen  are  also  open  to  the 
students  for  practical  instruction 

It  is  noticeable  that  while  graduates  of  the 
colonial  school  are  found  in  the  African  and 
Asiatic  colonies,  they  piefei  the  German  settle- 
ments in  the  new  world,  especrally  in  Brazil, 
Argentina,  and  Chile,  and  their  expert  knowl- 
edge and  skill  are  proving  of  immense  value 
in  the  commercial  and  industrial  development 
of  those  countries 


103 


GERRY  SCHOOLS 


GESNER 


The  growing  importance  of  German  colonial 
enterprise-  is  illustrated  in  the  proponed  plans 
of  the  new  um\ersity  at  Hamburg,  which  shall 
include  a  faculty  ol  colonial  science  This 
faculty  will  constitute  the  distinctive  feature 
of  the  new  institution  A.  T.  S. 

References  :  — 

Deutsche  Kolomalzeitung      (Berlin,  Fortnightly  ) 

FITZNEU,  H      Kolouialhamltnn  k 

Germans,  The,  in  Anrialtt  of  the  American  Academy  of 

Political  and  Social  Seience,  Vol   XIX,  Now   1  tmd  2 
HKHHE-WAKTKCH},    K     \ON      Mamon,    HtMnartkarthipel 

and  NOL  Gained      (Leipzig.  190J  ) 
JOHNSTON,  H   H      A  History  uj  Colonization  of  Africa  l>y 

Ahrn  Races      (CambndKo,  189*'  ) 
REINKCKE,  F      Samoa      (Berlin,  1901  ) 
Statiitt'iacheit  Jakrbuch  fur  dan  deutnche  Reich      (Beilin, 

annual  ) 

GERRY  SCHOOLS  —See  HUMANE  EDU- 
CATION 

GERSON,  JEAN  CHARLIER  (1  363-1420)  — 
Teacher,  theologian,  and  ehancelloi  of  the  Uni- 
veisitv  of  Paris,  horn  at  Gerson,  educated  veiy 
probably  at  Rheims,  and  studied  at  the  Col- 
lege of  Navarre  in  Pans  He  eailv  devoted 
himself  to  theology,  and  obtained  the  degree  of 
doctor  in  that  subject  At  the  eai  ly  age  of  thirty- 
two  he  became  Chancellor  of  the  University  of 
Pans  in  succession  to  his  friend  and  teachei  , 
Peter  d'Ailly  His  standing  as  a  theologian 
was  high,  and  he  soon  gained  the  title  of  Doctor 
Chiistiamssunus  Breaking  from  the  scholas- 
ticism and  dialectic  methods  of  his  day,  his 
writings  show  a  return  to  source  material  and 
the  Church  fathers,  and  a  good  knowledge  of 
tho  classics,  while  his  philosophy  was  nominal- 
istic  colored  by  mysticism  At  the  Councils 
of  Pisa  and  Constance  he  was  an  important 
factor,  and  his  general  influence  was  consider- 
able lie  preached  to  the  people  in  the  vernac- 
ular, mainly  on  questions  of  practical  morality, 
and  took  a  gieat  interest  in  the  young  students 
of  Pans,  wheie  he  tried  to  introduce'  some  sort 
of  guidance  and  a  moial  spmt  among  them 
In  a  lettei  he  lecommended  to  such  a  student 
a  study  ot  Gieek  and  Latin  works  for  their 
content,  and  for  style  As  a  teacher  himself, 
he  looked  to  (Jumtiliaii  for  the  ideal  in  his 
held  His  chief  educational  work  was  the 
Tractate  on  Leading  the  Little  Ones  to  Christ 
(Tntctatu*  dt'  l*auniliv  tradcndis  ad  Chribtum\ 
which,  as  is  indicated  in  the  title,  concerns 
itself  wholly  with  ichgious  and  moral  educa- 
tion The  woik,  which  has  as  its  text  Mat 
xix,  14,  is  divided  into  four  parts,  each  with  its 
own  text  (1)  The  necessity  and  means  for 
educating  the  young  foi  reverence  of  God, 
religion,  humanity,  and  civilization  on  a  basis 
of  habit  (La  ui,  29)  The  means  are  sermons, 
private  admonition,  discipline,  and  the  confes- 
sional. (2)  On  those  who  offend  young  chil- 
dren by  bad  examples  (Mat  xvm,  16)  (3)  On 
the  great  service  performed  by  the  religious 
teacher  (James,  v,  20)  (4)  Self-defence  and 


apology  (Gal  M,  1)  The  laM,  ten  yeais  of  his 
life  he  spent  in  a  consent  ol  Ccolestine  monk.s 
and  devoted  much  time  to  teaching  childien 

References  •  — 

Catholic  Kmydopediu,  s   v    G(rson 

FRMTNDCJEN,     J       Jnhtntnfft    Certton,     Vol      XXIII     of 

Sammlung  dcr  bedrutentlshn  padagogischen  Schnf- 

ten      (Parlor  born,  1N96) 
TOWNHKND,    W       The   (treat   Schoolmen    of  the   Middle 

Agctt,  pp    29  1-309       (London,  1SS1  ) 

GESNER,  CONRAD  (1510-1565)  —Called 
by  llallam  "  a  man  ol  prodigious  erudition  " 
lie  was  born  at  Zimch.  His  parents  being 
unable  to  educate  him,  he  was  befriended, 
housed,  and  educated  by  Ammian,  the  profes- 
sor of  rhetoric,  foi  thiee  yeais  He  resolved 
to  travel,  and  enteied  the  semce  of  Capito,  a 
Hebrew  scholar,  at  Strassbuig  After  furthei 
travel,  he  was  placed  at  the  head  of  a  school  at 
Zurich  After  studying  physic,  he  resigned  his 
school  teaching,  and,  having  had  a  small  pension 
allotted  him,  he  set  to  woik  at  leading  the  Cheek 
physicians  Foi  a  time  he  was  professor  of 
Greek  at  Lausanne,  and  was  piofessor  of  philos- 
ophy at  Zurich  foi  the  last  twenty-foui  yeais 
of  his  hie  Gesner  wiote  his  Bibhotheca  U  mver- 
.sa/*,s  in  1545  This  was  a  catalogue  of  books  in 
Latin,  Greek,  and  Hebiew,  and  ga\re  cuticisms 
and  specimens  of  man\  of  the  works  cited  lie 
wrote  a  continuation  of  the  work  in  the  Panda  toe. 
Univei  sales,  154S-1555  These  two  woiks  at- 
tempted to  do  foi  general  literature  what  the 
Digest  of  Justinian  had  done  foi  Civil  Law 
Thus  Gesnei's  books  aie  of  the  greatest  value 
as  a  bibliographical  encyclopedia  of  hteratuie  up 
to  his  tunes  In  J555  he  published  Mittnidates 
dc  differentia  linguaunn  tutu  veteium,  tuni  qua 
hodie  apud  diversas  natwnes  ni  toto  orbe  terrai  um 
ni  nsii  Mint,  observation's  This  is  the  first  great 
modern  book  on  comparative  philology,  and 
attempts  a  characterization  of  all  ancient  and 
modern  languages  from  the  Ethiopic  down  to 
the  gipsy  language  Gesner  also  wiote  the 
Hi^tonoe  Annnahuni  published  in  1551-155G, 
containing  a  critical  account  of  all  that  had 
been  written  and  done  on  zoology  by  his  prede- 
cessors. His  Icones  Ammalium  is  a  volume 
of  woodcuts  and  names  only  As  a  naturalist 
Gesner  emphasized  the  method  of  peisonal  ob- 
servation instead  of  relying  on  the  observations 
of  the  old  classical  writers,  though  he  did  a 
great  deal  in  promoting  the  close*  study  of  those 
writers  He  planted  a  botanic  garden  for  his 
observation  and  experiments  lie  formed  a 
museum  in  connection  with  his  professorial  post 
and  obtained  contributions  of  some  specimens 
from  most  parts  of  Europe  He  made  the 
ascent  of  Mont  Pilatus  near  Lucerne  and  ex- 
amined all  the  specimens  he  could  find  there, 
in  spite  of  the  superstitions  concerning  the 
mountain.  He  visited  patients  in  Zurich  at 
the  time  of  the  plague  and  devoted  himself  to 
the  study  of  the  best  cures,  but  he  was  over- 
taken by  it  and  died  in  his  Museum  in  1565. 


104 


GESNEH,  JOHANN  MATIIIAS 


GETHSKMANI   COLLEGE 


He  was  the  greatest  encyclopedist  of  the  Renais- 
sance p.  W. 
References :  — 

Allgemcinc  Deutsche  Biographic 

JARDINE,  SIR  WM  The  Naturalistic  Library,  Edinburgh, 
Vol  XII 

SMITH,  LIEUT  -(\>L  T  HAMILTON  The  Natural  His- 
tory of  Hordes  (with  memoir  of  Gesnor)  1841 

WATSON,  FOSTER  IteffinniHon  of  the  Teaching  of  Modern 
Subject**  in  England  (London,  1909  ) 

GESNER,  JOHANN  MATHIAS  (1691- 
1761)  —  Prominent  philologist  and  reformer 
of  higher  education  in  Germany;  was  bom  the 
son  of  a  pastor  in  the  small  city  of  Roth  m 
Francoma  and  received  his  early  education  at 
the  gymnasium  in  Ansbach  In  1010  he  went 
to  the  university  of  Jena,  in  1715  ho  was  ap- 
pointed teacher  of  the  gymnasium  m  Weimar, 
in  1729  he  accepted  a  call  to  the  prmcipalship 
of  the  gymnasium  in  Ansbwch,  but  finding  that 
this  position  did  not  allow  him  sufficient  leisure 
for  his  literary  activity,  he  left  it  Ihe  following 
year  arid  became  the  head  of  the  old  Thoma**- 
schulc  in  Leipzig  He  reestablished  the  icpu- 
tation  of  the  school  by  restoring  the  study  of 
the  classics,  by  enriching  the  course  of  study, 
especially  through  the  emphasis  laid  on  mathe- 
matics, and  by  improving  the  discipline1  In 
1734  lie  was  called  as  Professor  of  Rhetoric  to 
the  newly  established  university  of  Ciottingen 
and  remained  there  until  his  death  He  lec- 
tured on  Latin  and  Greek  literatuie  and  on 
classic  archaeology,  but,  at  the  same  tune, 
kept  up  his  strong  interest  m  pedagogy  He 
was  the  inspector  of  the  Brunswick  gym- 
nasiums and  conducted,  from  173S  on,  a  philo- 
logical seminar  in  which  candidates  for  the 
teaching  profession  icceived  a  geneial  educa- 
tion togethei  with  theoietical  and  piactical 
training  in  pedagogy  For  this  purpose  he 
wrote  lus  PtimcB  hnccc  i*ago(je\  ui  cruditioneni 
unwcrsalvm  (Outlines  of  an  introduction  to 
geneial  education,  paiticulaily  to  philology,  his- 
toiy,  and  philosophy),  which  appealed  in  1700 
As  eaily  as  1715,  he  had  written  his  Institu- 
twncb  rci  scholastics,  a  treatise  on  education, 
which  shows  the  influence  of  the  ideas  of 
Ratke,  Comenius,  and  Locke 

Gcsner's  educational  activity  marks  an 
epoch  in  the  history  of  classical  education  in 
Germany  He  is  the  founder  of  that  great 
movement  in  German  education  which  is 
known  as  Neo-Humanibm  (q  v  )  and  which  con- 
trolled the  aim  and  methods  of  the  most  influen- 
tial of  the  higher  schools,  and  through  them  the 
educational  ideals  of  the  leading  classes  of  the 
nation,  down  to  the  last  quarter  of  the  nineteenth 
century  He  revived  the  study  of  Greek,  which 
in  Germany  at  that  time  had  been  almost  totally 
neglected,  and  insisted  on  the  study  of  the 
classics  for  the  bake  of  their  great  thought  con- 
tent and  their  ethical  and  aesthetic  value  He 
believed  in  arousing  in  the  pupil  a  pleasurable 
interest  in  his  work,  and,  for  this  reason,  he  ad- 
vocated the  teaching  of  the  elements  of  Latin 


through  usage  only,  and  without  the  help  of 
formal  grammar  In  this  way  he  was  a 
forerunner  of  Basedow  and  of  the  modern 
reformers  of  foreign  language  instruction 
Next  to  the  study  of  the  classics,  he  empha- 
sized instruction  in  the  mother  tongue,  in 
French,  mathematics,  natuial  science,  history, 
and  geography  Gcsner's  educational  views 
were  backed  by  a  rare  combination  of  great 
erudition,  not  only  m  philology  but  in  several 
other  fields  of  knowledge,  with  a  long  prac- 
tical experience  in  teaching  and  fine  pedagogic 
tact  Through  his  connection  with  the  Bruns- 
wick schools  and  his  training  of  teachers,  he 
had  constant  opportunities  of  testing  the 
actual  operation  of  his  theories  m  practice 
It  is  owing  to  these  favorable  circumstances, 
arid  to  the  fact  that  his  work  was  carried  on 
by  such  brilliant  successors  as  Erriesti  (q  v  ) 
in  Leipzig  and  Hevnc  (q  v  )  in  Gottmgen,  that 
the  movement  initiated  by  Gcsnei  acquired 
such  a  great  and  lasting  influence  on  the  higher 
education  of  Geimany 

Among  the  will  ings  of  Gesner,  besides  the 
works  already  noled,  may  be  mentioned  his 
various  editions  of  Latin  authors,  as  well  as 
his  selections  from  (-icero,  Pliny,  and  from 
Greek  authors  (Chrcstomathia  Ciceionuina  1710, 
Phmana  1728,  (iicsca  1731),  the  last  of  which 
contributed  greatly  to  the  impiovcment  of  the 
study  of  Greek  in  Germany,  his  Thc^auru*  of 
the  Latin  language,  published  in  1745  m  four 
volumes,  and  his  Geiman  A\v,sa//,s  (Klntn 
Dentschc  Schnftcn  1756),  which  contain  much 
of  pedagogic  value  F  M 

Sec  NED-HUMANISM. 
References:  — 
T'AULSKN,  FR      Gc.Hchufikjdet>(jclehrten  Vnternchts      Vol 

II,  pp    15-2S       (Leipzig,  1896) 
POHNKRT,  K    H    15      ,/    M    Gesner  und  t>em  Verhallrns 

zuni     Phdanthropini.imu\      und     N  euhumanwmux 

(Leipzig,  1898  ) 
HKIN,   W      EncyUopbdibLhes  Handbuch  der    Padagoyik 

«.v  (irvner 
ZIEOLER,  TH     Gcxthtchlt'dcrPadagoffkk     (Munich,  1895  ) 

GESTURE  LANGUAGE  —  A  method  of 
communication  m  which  movements  of  the 
hands  or  other  organs  of  the  body  are  em- 
ployed instead  of  the  ordinary  movements  of 
articulation  This  is  a  primitive  form  of  lan- 
guage and  undoubtedly  exemplifies  a  simpler 
stage  of  psychological  development  than  that 
which  is  exhibited  in  articulate  language 

C    11    J. 

See  LANGUAGE 

References :  — 

JUDD,  C    H      Psychology,  General  Introduction      (New 

York,  1907  ) 
WUNDT,  W     V  biker  pay  chologie,  Vol   I      (Leipzig,  1900) 

GETHSEMANI     COLLEGE,      TRAPPIST 

P  O  ,  KY  —  A  Catholic  college  connected  with 
the  Abbey  of  CJethsemam  Preparatory  and 
commercial  departments  are  maintained,  di- 
plomas being  conferred  in  the  latter. 


105 


GHENT 


GILBERT 


GHENT,    UNIVERSITY    OF       See 

GIUM,  EDUCATION  IN 


GHERARDO  OF  CREMONA  —  A  distin- 
guished scholar  and  teacher  of  mathematics  in 
the  twelfth  century  He  was  born  m  1114  at 
Cremona,  in  Loinbardy,  and  died  there  in 
1187  He  is  known  chiefly  for  his  work  in 
astronomy,  which  included  several  transla- 
tions from  the  Arabic,  the  Almagest  (see 
PTOLEMY)  among  them  D  K  S 

GIBBS,  JONATHAN  C  (1K31-1H74)  —A 
colored  educator,  educated  at  Dartmouth  Col- 
lege (graduating  in  1852)  and  at  the  Prince- 
ton Theological  Seminary  He  was  in  charge 
of  the  educational  woik  organized  by  the  Pres- 
byterian church  among  the  fteedmen  (1<S(>3- 
1808),  secretary  of  state  in  Florida  (1868-1872), 
arid  state  superintendent  of  public  instruction 
in  Florida  (1872-1874)  W  S  M 

GIDDINESS  —See  DIZZINESS 

GIESSEN,  THE  GRAND  DUCAL  HES 
SIAN  LUDWIG  UNIVERSITY  OF  —The 
University  of  Gieswn  was  founded  by  Land- 
grave Louis  V,  the  Faithful,  in  the  year  1(>07, 
and  owes  its  origin  to  the  leligious  conditions 
of  the  period  (See  GERMANY,  EDUCATION  IN, 
section  on  Universities  )  Giessen,  from  its  in- 
ception, possessed  the  chaiacter  of  a  uimer- 
sity,  although  m  the  beginning  the  theological 
faculty  was  by  far  the  largest  and  most  re- 
nowned, the  institution  being  known  fai  and 
wide  as  a  Lutheran  stronghold  To  this  cir- 
cumstance may  be  attributed  the  fact  that  at 
the  outbreak  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War  Giessen 
was  one  of  the  most  frequented  universities  in 
the  whole  of  Germany,  being  exceeded  in  size 
probably  only  by  Leipzig  and  Jena  As  a 
direct  result  of  political  changes,  the  univei- 
sity  was  transferred  to  Mai  bin  g  in  1(52.5,  a 
ichgious  controversy  at  the  lattei  institution 
twenty  years  previous  having  led  to  the  seces- 
sion that  was  responsible  for  the  organization 
of  a  university  at  Giessen  At  the  close  of  the 
war,  another  political  transfer  brought  about 
the  reestablish  men t  of  the  institution  at  Gies- 
sen, and  from  that  time  to  the  present  day  the 
university  has  had  an  honored,  albeit  some- 
what modest  existence 

A  faculty  of  political  economy  was  estab- 
lished at  the  university  in  1777  and  may  be 
regarded  as  the  forerunner  of  the  faculties  of 
political  science,  but  it  was  disorganized  eight 
years  later  In  1829  a  school  of  forestry  was 
established  as  a  branch  of  the  university,  and 
from  1837  to  1875  Giessen  also  possessed  a 
technical  school  (at  Darmstadt  since  1877), 
both  departments  being  included  in  the  faculty 
of  philosophy  This  fact  is  worthy  of  com- 
ment, as  the  schools  of  technology  are  not  affili- 
ated with  the  um\ersities  m  Germany  The 
faculty  of  medicine  includes  a  college  of  veteri- 


BEL-  nary  medicine,  which  is  the  only  school  in  Ger- 
many to  award  the  degree  of  Dr  Med.  Vet. 
From  1830  to  18,59  Giessen  also  supported  a 
Catholic  theological  faculty 

A  new  hbiary  building  was  completed  in 
1904,  having,  been  elected  at  a  cost  of  $125,000, 
it  contains  over  230,000  volumes  and  over 
100,000  dissertations  and  programs  The 
annual  university  budget  amounts  to  about 
$375,000  Giessen  is  one  of  the  smallest  of 
the  German  universities  in  point  of  attendance, 
there  being  1249  students  enrolled  in  the  winter 
semestei  of  1910-1911,  of  whom  more  than 
half  aie  legistered  in  the  faculty  of  philosophy, 
this  being  followed  by  medicine,  law,  and 
theology,  in  the  order  named 

Among  former  teachers  of  the  university 
may  be  mentioned  the  celebrated  jurist  Rudolf 
von  Jhenng,  and  the  renowned  chemist  Justus 
von  Liebig,  Robert  von  Schlagmtweit,  the 
explorer,  served  as  docent  at  Giessen  from  1863 
to  1885  R  T  ,  Jr 

References :  — 

Die  Vmorr\itat  Giewn  von  1607  b?s  11)07  Fe^chnft 
inr  dnttin  Jain hunclcrtft iir  ((jirasen  ) 

LEXIS,  A\  7>as  I f Htcrncht^wctiCti  itn  (itulKth(n  Kcu h 
Vol  I,  pp  ,r>(>2  574  (Berlin,  1901  ) 

NLUEL,  K  L  \V  Kurz<  Vber^tcht  on(r  Gcxchichte  der 
Irnioer8it&t  GubAcn  (Ma/ burg,  1SJS  ) 

GIFTS  — See  FHOEBEL,    KINDERGARTEN 

GILBERT,  SIR  HUMPHREY  (1530-1583) 
—  The  navigator  and  stephrothei  of  Sn  Walter 
Raleigh  In  c  1572  he  devised  a  scheme  for 
"  the  erection  of  an  Academy  in  London  foi 
the  education  of  hei  Majesty's  Wards  and 
others  the  youth  of  nobility  and  gentlemen/' 
which  was  edited  fiom  the  Lansdownc  Ms 
by  Dr  F  J  Furnnall  for  the  Early  Knghsh 
Text  Society  in  1809  Gilbert  bewails  the  I  act 
that  the  wards  of  the  Ciown  were  often  in  the 
hands  of  those  of  evil  religion  or  insufficient  qual- 
ity, and  since  these  waids  weie  chiefly  resident 
m  London,  he  pioposes  that  an  Academy  be 
erected  and  suggests  not  only  the  subjects  to  be 
taught  therein  but  also  the  salaries  to  be  paid  to 
the  teachers  and  ushers  A  new  type  of  educa- 
tion was  proposed,  based  on  a  cuinculum  differ- 
ing fiom  that  of  the  humanistic  schools  of  the 
day  Milton's  Ti  act  ate  shows  a  remarkable 
similarity  to  Gilbert's  work  Masters  were  to 
be  engaged  to  teach  Latin,  Gieck,  and  Hebrew, 
although  a  sufficiently  important  place  is 
assigned  to  the  vernacular,  for  "  in  what  lan- 
guage soever  learning  is  attained  the  appliance 
to  use  is  principally  m  the  vulgar  speech  as  in 
preaching,  in  parliament,  in  council,  in  com- 
missions and  other  offices  of  common  weal  " 
Readers  were  to  be  appointed  for  moral  philoso- 
phy to  read  "  the  political  part  thereof",  for 
natural  philosophy,  for  mathematics  to  deal 
with  military  art,  cosmography,  astronomy, 
and  practical  navigation  A  doctor  of  physic 
was  to  teach  physic,  ehirurgcry,  and  medicines, 
and  v\as  to  have  a  garden  and  simples  Civil 


106 


GILCHRLST 


GILDS 


law,  divinity,  and  common  law  were  each  to 
have  a  reader.  Provision  was  to  be  made  for 
the  teaching  of  modern  languages,  dancing, 
heraldry,  defence,  horsemanship,  stiategy,  and 
tactics. 

The  arrangements  for  the  libiaiy  are  par- 
ticularly interesting  The  keeper  is  allowed 
£26  a  year  After  every  mart  he  "shall 
cause  the  bringers  of  books  into  England  to 
exhibit  to  him  their  registers,  and  thus  to  have 
first  choice  of  books  to  buy  Foi  the  buying 
of  books,  etc  ,  for  the  library  £40  was  to  be 
allowed  But  in  addition  it  is  to  be  noted, 
"All  printers  in  England,  shall  be  foiever 
charged  to  deliver  into  the  library  of  the 
Academy,  at  their  own  charges,  one  copy, 
well  bound,  of  eveiy  book,  proclamation,  or 
pamphlet  printed  "  The  tic-usurer's  salary  was 
to  be  £100  The  chief  governor  was  to  be  the 
rnastei  of  the  wards,  assisted  by  the  rector 
who  was  to  have  personal  supervision  ovei  the 
pupils  The  public  readers  of  arts  and  com- 
mon laws  weie  to  publish  some  new  book 
eveiy  six  years,  and  eveiy  thiee  years  to  issue 
a  translation  of  some  good  book  F  W 

See  ACADEMIES,  COURTH  ,  GERBIER,  GEN- 
TRY VND  NOBLES,  EDUCATION  OF,  MILTON 

References :  — 

Didionaiu  <>f  National  Jlioi/raphi/,  Vo]    XXXI,  p    ,'J27 
FUHNIV\LL,    F     ,1  ,    of!       Qun n    Eltzahitlus    Achadcmy 
Kurly  English  Text  Sotiotx       (London,  lSb(J  ) 

GILCHRIST,  JOHN  BORTHWICK  -  See 

GILCHRLST  EDUCATIONAL  TRUST 


GILCHRIST    EDUCATIONAL    TRUST  — 

An  institution  established  by  the  \vill  of  John 
Borthwick  (iilchnst  (17.59-1841),  a  sen  ant  of 
the  East  India  Company  and  an  orientalist 
He  was  professoi  of  Hindustani  at  London  Uni- 
versity and  took  an  interest  in  educational  and 
philanthropic  efforts,  being  associated  with 
George  Unkbeek  (qv)  in  some  of  his  work 
He  left  his  propeitv  to  trustees  for  "  the 
benefit,  advancement,  and  propagation  of  edu- 
cation and  learning  in  every  part  of  the  world 
so  far  as  circumstances  \\ill  permit  11  He  left 
every  arrangement  to  the  discretion  of  his 
trustees  The  will  was  the  subject  of  litiga- 
tion which  lasted  twenty-five  years,  and  only 
the  fortunate  circumstance1  that  pait  of  the 
property  was  on  the  site  of  Sydney,  Australia, 
rapidly  increasing  in  value,  seemed  any  means 
for  the  tiustecb  to  proceed  with  their  work 
The  trustees  adopted  the  principle  of  doing 
pioneer  work  in  promoting  education  arid  learn- 
ing where  other  efforts  were  not  being  employed 
In  this  way  numerous  movements  have  been 
started,  and  as  soon  as  they  have  been  taken 
over  by  other  bodies,  the  Tiust  has  diverted 
its  support  to  some  new  object  Thus,  scholar- 
ships to  aid  Indian  students  to  study  at  Eng- 
lish universities  were  established  until  the  woik 
was  taken  up  by  the  government  arid  umvcisi- 


ties  were  erected  in  India  Colonial  scholar- 
ships were  also  instituted  When  Girton  College 
and  other  institutions  were  established  for  the 
higher  education  of  women,  scholarships  were 
provided  as  well  as  in  training  colleges  for 
secondary  school  teachcis  Traveling  scholar- 
ships for  secondary  school  teachers  were  estab- 
lished for  professional  purposes  Reports  have 
been  published  on  educational  topics  in  foreign 
countries  including  Educational  Systems  of 
Sweden,  Norway,  and  Denmark,  French  Sec- 
ondary Education,  The  Teaching  of  Literature 
in  Girls'  Schools  in  Germany,  Manual  Instruc- 
tion in  France  and  Switzerland;  The  Teaching 
of  Geography  in  Switzerland  and  Italy 
When  the  Board  of  Education  undertook  the 
Special  Reports,  the  Trust  discontinued  the 
traveling  scholarships,  just  as  the  system  of 
exchange  teachers  between  England,  France, 
and  Germany  was  begun  by  the  Trust  until 
taken  over  by  the  Board  University  Exten- 
sion, the  Workers  Educational  Association 
(q  v ),  the  National  Home  Heading  Union 
(q  v  ),  and  the  Recreative  Schools  Association 
have  also  been  assisted  by  the  Trust  At 
present  the  Trust  money  is  being  used  to  en- 
courage a  system  by  which  young  teachers 
rnav  be  afforded  opportunities  of  spending 
some  time1  in  the  classrooms  of  expert  and 
more  mature  colleagues  A  scheme  is  also  on 
foot  for  the  establishment,  of  a  school  of  Ori- 
ental Languages  to  commemorate  the  woik  of 
the  foundci  The  remarkable  success  of  the 
Trust  has  shown  the  importance  of  freedom  in 
the  management  of  Trust  funds  for  public 
purposes  More  good  \\ork  has  been  accom- 
plished and  moie  success  has  been  achieved  in 
this  way  than  would  ha\e  been  possible  under 
the  restraint  of  the  "  dead  hand  "  of  regulations 
and  provisions,  which  only  too  often  harnpei 
such  bequests,  not  only  in  England  but  in 
America  The  Right  Honorable  Lord  Shuttle- 
worth  is  at  present  chairman  of  the  Trust, 
which  has  its  offices  in  London 

Reference  :  — 

Times    (London)      Educational    Supplement,    Ocl     4, 
1910 

GILDS,  MEDIEVAL,  AND  EDUCATION 

—  To  conceive  of  the  gild  as  the  technical 
school  of  the  middle  ages  LS  to  icalize  only  very 
imperfectly  its  impoitance  for  the  history  ol 
education  The  gilds  of  merchants  and  ctafts- 
men  which  regulated  commerce  and  industry 
from  the  eleventh  and  twelfth  centuries  onward 
were  only  species  in  a  groat  genus  which  ern- 
biaced  such  widely  different  institutions  as  the 
Universities,  the  Inns  of  Court,  the  Colleges 
of  Physicians  and  Surgeons  on  the  one  side, 
and  the  humblest  parish  burial  club  or  rural 
cooperative  society  on  the  other  The  re- 
ligious fraternity  supplied  the  only  available 
foim  and  sanction  for  every  kind  of  free  asso- 
ciation, whatever  its  aim  political,  social, 


107 


GILDS 


GILDS 


economic,  recreative,  educational,  religious  In 
its  main  aspect  it  may  he  regarded  as  the  main 
instrument  in  the  formation  of  that  series  of 
middle  classes  by  whose  efforts  the  principle 
of  self-government  was  first  realized  in  the 
narrower  sphere  of  civic  life  and  thence  trans- 
planted to  the  wider  sphere  of  the  national 
state 

Although  it  is  generally  confined  to  the  pro- 
fessional and  technical  aspects  of  this  develop- 
ment, the  term  "education"  applies  m  a  large 
sense  to  the  whole  process  of  class  formation, 
and  a  few  words  may  he  said  as  to  the  social 
arid  political  education  afforded  by  the  gilds 
Socially  their  primary  function  was  to  facilitate 
a  transition  from  the  tie  of  kinship  to  that  of 
a  fellowship  based  on  neighborhood  or  a  com- 
mon profession  The  Saxon  gilds  of  thanes 
which  Maitland  has  likened  to  a  "  county 
club",  the  "frith  gilds"  of  London  and  the 
Knights'  gilds  which  in  some  cases  perhaps 
formed  the  first  nucleus  of  free  civic  associa- 
tion, all  served  this  purpose  and  are  connected 
by  it  as  one  continuous  social  development, 
both  with  the  merchant  and  craft  gilds  and  with 
the  pansh  gilds  in  town  and  country  By  their 
instrumentality  the  process  described  by  Fustel 
de  Coulangos  as  taking  place  in  the  city  state 
of  antiquity  was  carried  a  stage  further  What 
the  fiction  of  adoption  and  the  artificial  widen- 
ing of  the  ancestral  cult  were  to  the  earlier 
phase  of  civic  expansion,  the  more  attenuated 
fiction  of  fraternity,  and  the  foundation  of 
cooperative  chantries  weic  to  the  medieval 
city  Closely  connected  with  this  was  a  more 
consciously  educational  development  The 
wealthy  city  gilds  took  over  the  halls  of  feudal 
magnates  and  cooperatively  emulated  their 
style  of  life  They  feasted  kings,  and  drew 
nobility,  gentry,  and  clergy  into  their  honorary 
membeiship,  and  were  thus  one  of  the  main 
agencies  in  removing  social  exolusiveness  and 
in  transmitting  social  manners  and  ideals  from 
a  narrower  to  a  wider  circle 

In  the  political  education  of  the  middle  ages 
the  gilds  played  an  unique  part  They  were 
the  main  channels  through  which  new  classes 
of  the  population  were  drawn  into  the  field  of 
political  activity  Their  internal  affairs  fur- 
nished an  excellent  training  in  self-government 
and  administration,  whilst  their  intervention 
in  municipal  and  occasionally  in  national 
politics  gave  their  ambitious  members  a  wider 
scope  for  their  powers  The  disputes  that  have 
arisen  as  to  the  part  played  by  the  gilds  in  the 
earliest  phases  of  civic  organization  turn  upon 
questions  of  constitutional  form  and  leave 
untouched  the  primary  importance  of  the  gilds 
as  generators  of  political  force  and  organs  of 
political  change  In  many  leading  cases  at 
least  it  is  highly  probable  that  the  gilds  of  the 
twelfth  century  had  as  large  a  share  in  mold- 
ing the  earlier  patrician  rule  in  the  cities  of 
Western  Europe  as  the  craft  gilds  of  the  thir- 
teenth and  fourteenth  centuries  had  in  trans- 


108 


forming  it.  The  proceedings  of  the  gilds,  as 
such,  were  secret,  but  they  provided  periodi- 
cal opportunities  for  freely  debating  questions 
of  policy  or  of  principle,  and  there  can  be  little 
doubt  that  towards  the  end  of  the  fourteenth 
century,  when  the  gilds  became  more  numerous 
and  active  both  in  town  and  country,  they  often 
served  as  centers  of  political,  social,  and  religious 
propaganda 

Turning  now  to  education  in  the  stricter 
sense  it  is  well  to  emphasize  the  fact  already 
noted  that  the  greater  part  of  the  organized 
higher  education  of  the  middle  ages  was  based 
on  a  social  structure  provided  by  gilds  "  The 
rise  of  the  universities,"  says  Rashdall,  "  was 
merely  a  wave  of  that  groat  movement  towards 
association  which  began  to  sweep  over  the 
cities  of  Europe  in  the  course  of  the  eleventh 
century  "  (See  UNIVERSITIES  )  The  federated 
gilds  of  scholars  or  teachers  or  both,  of  which 
the  universities  wore  composed,  perfoimed  the 
same  functions  in  regard  to  the  higher  educa- 
tion of  the  piofcssional  classes  as  the  later  gilds 
performed  in  regard  to  the  technical  education 
of  the  merchant  and  the  craftsman  (See 
DEGREES,  INCEPTION  )  The  completed  gild 
structure  of  a  London  livery  company  towards 
the  close  of  the  fifteenth  century  is  closely 
analogous  to  that  of  one  of  the  Inns  of  Court 
(q  v  )  or  one  of  the  Oxford  colleges  of  the  same 
period 

A  link  between  the  universities  and  the  gilds 
is  furnished  by  the  civic  corporations  of  the 
learned  professions  The  notaries  formed  one 
of  the  greater  gilds  of  Florence,  and  probably 
the  regulations  imposed  by  the  civic  authorities 
of  London  in  the  thirteenth  century  on  pleaders 
and  attorneys  were  drawn  up  by  a  profes- 
sional gild  In  fifteenth-century  London  the 
professions  of  medicine  and  surgery  received 
from  the  city  a  set  of  ordinances  which  placed 
them  under  the  rule  of  a  Rector  who  must  be 
a  Doctor  of  Medicine,  a  Master  of  Arts  and 
Philosophy,  or  a  Bachelor  of  Medicine  of  long 
standing,  and  the  last-named  degiee  was  only 
to  be  accepted  as  a  temporary  makeshift  The 
gild  insisted  on  previous  graduation  for  full 
membership,  imposed  examinations  in  medicine 
and  surgery,  and  provided  a  hall  for  reading 
and  disputation  Later  on,  in  the  seventeenth 
and  eighteenth  centuries,  the  Barber-Surgeons 
of  London,  Pans,  and  Edinburgh  provided 
regular  demonstrations  in  anatomy  for  the 
instruction  of  their  members  The  London 
gild  of  Apothecaries  has  retained  its  examin- 
ing functions  down  to  the  present  day.  (See 
PHARMACEUTICAL  EDUCATION  ) 

Whilst  the  medical  and  surgical  gilds  were 
thus  able  to  delegate  many  of  their  educational 
functions  to  the  universities,  the  gilds  of  mer- 
chants and  craftsmen  were  the  sole  repositories 
of  the  traditional  lore  of  their  several  callings. 
It  is  very  probable  that  they  were  the  main 
channels  by  which  that  lore  was  transmitted 
from  the  East  to  the  West  and  from  the  later 


GILDS 


GILDS 


days  of  the  Roman  Empire  to  the  earlier  middle 
ages      Dr    L    M    Hartrnann  has  recently  es- 
tablished a  strong  case  for  the  continuity  of 
the  gild  tradition  at  Rome  and  Ravenna      The 
style  of  the  earliest  cathedral  builders  has  been 
traced    continuously    back    to    the    school    of 
"  Comacme  "    masters,    whom   the    Lombaids 
found   working  in   North   Italy      The  dedica- 
tions  of    the   gilds   of    the    five    fundamental 
medieval  handicrafts  afford  corroborative  evi- 
dence   which    has    been    hitherto    ovei  looked 
The  patron  saints  of  the  masons  —  the  Quatuor 
Ooronati  —  were  Roman  martyrs  of  the  third 
century,  those  of  the  shoemakers —  St  Ciispiu 
and   St.  Crispiman  —  are   said    to   have    been 
martyred  at  Soissons  at  the  same  period      St 
Aubert,  the  patron  saint  of  the  bakers  of  Flan- 
ders  and   Scotland,    was    Bishop   of   Cambrai 
and  Arras  in  the  seventh   century      St    Kloi, 
universally    venerated    by    the   smiths   of   the 
middle  ages,  was  a  goldsmith  of  Limoges  who 
became  a  missionary  Bishop  at  Noyon  under 
Dagobert      But  perhaps  the  most  interesting 
case  is  that  of  St  Sever  us,  a  woolcomber,  who 
was  Bishop  of  Ravenna  just  before  the  fall  of 
the   empire   and    whose    body    was   afterwards 
carried,  first  to  Mainz — the  place  of  the  first 
recorded  weavers'  gild  in  (Jermany —  and  thence 
to  Erfurt,  another  weaving  ceritei,  and  who  is 
subsequently    found    as    the    pat  ion    saint    of 
weavers  throughout  the  Netherlands  and  Scot- 
land     A   similar  significance   attaches  to   the 
spread  of  the  cult  of  St   Nicholas  of  Myra,  the 
patron  saint  of  Levantine  commcicc  and  navi- 
gation, which  is  exactly  contemporaneous  with 
the  settlement  of  a  hitherto  hugely  nomadic 
trading  class  and  the  rise  of  the  merchant  gild 
There  aie  early    churches   of   St     Nicholas   in 
close  connection  with  the  poits  or  markets  of 
London,     Bristol,     Yarmouth,     Newcastlc-on- 
Tync,    Liverpool,    (ihent,     Brussels,     Utrecht, 
Berlin,  Frankfort,   Leipzig,   Hamburg,  Prague, 
Stockholm,  Bergen 

It  is  thus  probable  that  the  most  important 
educational  service  of  the  gilds  was  removed 
before  their  lecorded  histoiy  begins  In  the 
later  period,  inaugurated  by  the  grant  of  royal 
charters  or  civic  ordinances  in  the  twelfth  and 
thirteenth  centuries,  the  growth  of  the  system 
of  apprenticeship  is  the  central  feature  of  gild 
history  from  the  educational  point  of  Mew 
The  earliest  extant  records  of  apprenticeship 
arc  private  contracts  between  individuals 
Nvhich  stipulate  for  a  premium  or  certain  years 
of  service  in  return  for  specified  teaching  The 
authorized  regulation  of  the  conditions  of  ap- 
prenticeship by  the  gilds  begins  in  London, 
Pans,  arid  elsewhere  in  the  last  quarter  of  the 
thirteenth  century  The  urban  population  was 
then  rapidly  increasing  Division  of  labor  was 
giving  rise  to  new  trades  for  which  the  ciaft 
gild  furnished  a  ready  organization,  and  during 
the  two  following  centuries  a  steady  stream 
of  rural  labor  was  drawn  by  this  agency  into 
the  channels  of  a  higher  technical  training 


109 


The  education  provided  by  the  gild  rested  en- 
tirely on  a  domestic  basis  As  a  rule  the  master 
craftsman  might  teach  his  trade  to  as  many 
sons  as  he  pleased,  but  could  only  have  one 
other  apprentice  who  received  board  and  lodg- 
ing, clothing  and  discipline  as  one  of  the  family 
In  entering  the  new  household  the  apprentice 
passed  under  the  protection  of  the  gild  which 
revised  the  terms  of  his  contract,  furnished  a 
court  of  appeal  against  ill  usage  or  defective 
training,  and  guaranteed  the  ultimate  attain- 
ment of  mastership  This  produced  uniformity 
within  each  craft,  but  the  variations  of  usage 
between  different  crafts  and  different  cities 
remained  very  wide  throughout  the  middle 
ages  In  Pans  the  cooks  required  two  years' 
service,  the  carpenters  four,  the  chandlers  six, 
the  embroiderers  eight,  the  goldsmiths  ten. 
A  seven  years'  apprenticeship,  which  had  be- 
come universal  amongst  London  crafts,  was 
adopted  as  the  national  standard  in  the  sixteenth 
century  On  the  continent  a  much  shorter  pe- 
riod of  from  two  to  six  years  was  supplemented 
by  the  requirement  of  from  three  to  five  years' 
travel  in  search  of  fuller  experience  Some  of 
the  Rhine  cities  were  much  frequented  by 
journeymen  as  the  finishing  school  of  their 
several  trades 

Besides  regulating  access  to  the  only  techni- 
cal  school,    the    workshop,    the    gilds   largely 
determined  the  nature  of  the  instruction  thus 
afforded,   not  only  by  an  official   examination 
of  the  aspirants  to  mastership,  but  also  more 
effectively  by  the  regular  inspection  of  their 
trades,  backed  by  civic  authority,  in  which  the 
collective  technical  conscience  of  the  gild  was 
brought  to  bear  on  the  methods  of  the  individ- 
ual craftsman      False  work  and  bad  materials 
were  seized  and  judged  by  juries  of  experts 
In  some   crafts,   e  g    the  goldsmiths,  the  gild 
affixed  its  stamp  to  sound  work,  in  others,  eg 
the  blacksmiths,  the  pewter ers,  and  even   the 
bakers,  each  master  must  have  a  mark  of  his 
own,    whilst  in  the  cloth   manufacture  it  be- 
came usual  to  insist  on  inspection  and  official 
sealing  at  each  stage      Technical  rules  multi- 
plied under  the  control  of  the  gilds  and  were 
afterwards  in  many  cases  codified  in  national 
legislation      The  Act  of  1603-1004,  which  pre- 
scribes in   fifty-two  elaborate  sections  the  in- 
dustrial technique  to  be  followed  by  the  Eng- 
lish leather  trades,  is  an  interesting  illustration 
of  the  cumulative  power  of  gild  tradition      It 
is  very  difficult  to  appraise  justly  the  educa- 
tional   value    of   this   tradition      In    its    later 
phases,  when  we  know  it  best,  it  was  almost 
wholly    a    hindrance    to    industrial    progress 
It.  was  in  the  earlier  and  less  recorded  phases 
that  the  gilds  performed  their  real  educational 
service    by   disciplining  crude  labor,    checking 
dishonest    impulses,  and  gradually   forming   a 
professional  sense  of  honor       But  even   then 
the  gild's  powers  of  search  were  often  used  to 
exclude    the    competition    of    foreign    wares 
Later  on,  when  the  craft  gilds  acquired  pre- 


GILDS 


GILDS 


dominance  in  city  government,  their  policy 
as  embodied  in  their  ordinances,  their  methods 
of  inspection,  and  their  regulation  or  apprentice- 
ship exhibited  a  narrower  spirit  of  corporate 
egotism.  The  two  opposite  abuses  to  which 
the  system  of  apprenticeship  is  liable--  undue 
restriction  as  a  means  of  limiting  the  number  of 
masters  and  entire  absence  of  lestnction  as 
a  means  of  exploiting  youthful  labor  —  both 
became  common  in  the  fifteenth  century 

The  ordinances  of  the  majority  of  gilds  at  the 
close  of  the  middle  ages  exhibit  a  compromise 
between  these  conflicting  tendencies  New 
masters  are  often  forbidden  to  take  any  ap- 
prentices for  several  years,  and  then  restricted 
to  one,  whilst  those  who  sit  on  the  governing 
body  may  take  two,  and  those  who  have  held 
the  highest  office  three  By  this  time  the  en- 
trance to  mastership  had  likewise  become 
restricted,  partly  by  the  growth  of  industrial 
capital,  but  also  by  the  imposition  of  artificial 
conditions  Foremost  among  these  was  the 
institution  of  the  masterpiece,  which  did  not 
become  widespread  till  the  sixteenth  century 
Originating  in  simple  tests  of  competent  work- 
manship this  developed  into  the  imposition  of 
a  task  sometimes  occupying  many  months  and 
requiring  the  use  of  expensive  material  besides 
the  payment  of  heavy  fees  to  the  official  ex- 
aminers The  extant  rules  for  the  execution 
of  the  masterpiece  —  which  in  the  case  of  a 
wide  range  of  Pans  crafts  cover  a  period  of 
four  ceiituncs  —  form  a  valuable  contribution 
to  the  history  of  technical  education  A  jury  of 
scriveners  examined  candidates  in  cahgiaphy, 
orthography,  and  casting  of  accounts  The 
printers  and  booksellers  required  a  knowledge 
of  Greek  and  Latin,  the  masterpiece  of  the 
pinners  was  a  thousand  pins,  of  the  shoemakers 
a  pair  of  boots,  three  pairs  of  shoes,  and  a  pair 
of  slippers,  of  the  butchers  the  dressing  for 
sale  of  the  carcases  of  a  cow,  a  calf,  a  sheep,  and 
a  pig  But  in  many  cases  much  more  elaborate 
tests  were  prescribed  or  were  left  to  the  discre- 
tion of  the  gild  authorities  who  deliberately 
used  them  to  exclude  candidates  from  the 
mastership  At  the  same  tune  the  sons  of 
masters  arid  those  who  could  pay  a  large  en- 
trance fee  were  exempted  altogether  or  sub- 
jected to  a  nominal  test  Whilst,  therefore, 
the  educational  functions  of  the  gilds  attained 
their  most  explicit  and  impressive  form  in  the 
masterpiece,  they  were  simultaneously  ceasing 
to  exercise  an  appreciable  influence  on  the  main 
course  of  industrial  development  which  by  this 
time  was  escaping  from  the  corporate  lestric- 
tions  imposed  in  the  older  urban  centers  and 
seeking  a  freer  environment  in  the  country 
However  regrettable,  it  was  no  doubt  natural 
that  the  pioneers  of  the  next  phase  of  industrial 
progress  and  especially  the  inventors  of  labor- 
saving  machinery  should  have  found  their 
chief  obstacle  in  the  handicraft  traditions  of  the 
gilds  (See  APPRENTICESHIP  AND  EDUCATION, 
INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION  )  G  U 


110 


The  gilds  were,  however,  more  intimately 
associated  with  school  education  in  England. 
Many  gilds  maintained  one  or  more  priests  to 
minister  to  the  members  of  the  fraternity,  the 
practice  arose  for  these  priests  to  keep  school 
for  children  of  members  or  of  the  whole  town 
In  time  money  was  left  to  gilds  for  the  express 
purpose  of  engaging  a  clerk  to  keep  school, 
elsewhere  the  gilds  paid  the  schoolmaster  out 
of  their  funds  Thus  at  Barnard  Castle  the 
Gild  of  Trinity  was  "  founded  and  endowed 
with  certain  lands,  by  gift  of  the  brethren  and 
other  benefactors  of  the  sons  of  ancient  time 
to  find  a  priest  to  say  mass  and  to 

keep  a  free  grammar  school  and  a  song  school 
for  all  the  children  of  the  town  "  Of  33  gilds 
investigated  by  Leach,  "  excluding  the  Craft 
Guilds  of  London  and  Shrewsbury,  and  the 
Merchants'  (hid  at  York,  28  kept  grammar 
schools,  arid  to  them  may  be  added  the 
Drapers  of  Shrewsbury,  who  kept  a  grammar 
school,  while  the  Mercers  of  London  were 
trustees  for  three  schools  mentioned,  and  the 
Goldsmiths  foi  two  "  In  many  instances  the 
gild  corporations  were  appointed  as  trustees 
of  schools  and  with  them  were  vested  the  right 
of  appointing  or  dismissing  the  schoolmaster, 
the  superintendence  of  repairs,  the  school 
property,  the  admission  of  pupils,  the  drawing 
up  of  statutes  for  the  better  government  of 
schools,  or  appointing  boards  of  governors  for 
schools  The  Skinners'  Company  of  London 
became  trustees  for  Tonbndge  School  in  1552 
with  powei  to  draw  up  statutes  for  the  school, 
and  the  practice  grew  up  for  the  governois  to 
pay  an  annual  visit  to  the  school  With  the 
decay  of  the  gild  system  most  of  the  schools 
maintained  or  supervised  by  the  schools  be- 
came private  endowed  schools,  while  only  a  few 
schools  in  London  have  remained  under  the 
control  of  gilds,  c  g  Merchant  Taylors'  School, 
Stationers'  School,  and  the  Meicers'  School 

Of  recent  years,  some  of  the  wealthier  London 
companies  have  devoted  large  sums  to  the  endow- 
ment of  technical  and  university  education 

References :  — 

AHHLEY,   W    .1       An   Jntroduetion  to  English  Economic 

History  and  Theory       (Now  York,  1898  ) 
DOU&N,  A   ,J       Das  Flonntiner  Zunftwettcn      (Stuttgart, 

190S  ) 
FRANKLIN,  A      Diet  ion  naire  histoi  KJUC  ofrv  Art*,  Metiers 

ft  Profession*  exeiee*  dans  Pa) is       (PariH,  1906.) 
CiHOHM,  C.     The  (hid  Men  haul      (London,  181)0  ) 
LEACH,    A     F      English    School^    at    tht    Reformation 

(London,  1896  ) 
LOKHCH,  H    VON      DH    Kdhier  Zunfturkiuidcn      (Dua- 

aoldorf,  1907  ) 
MAREZ,  G    DEH      L' Organisation  d(  Ti  avail  A  Bnij.cllt8 

an  XVc  XiecU*      (BniBttolH,  1904  ) 
SCHMOLLER,  C?       Die  HtraKxburQCT  Tuchcr-  ujid   Wcbcr- 

zunft      (Strasbourg,   1879  ) 

STALKY,  E      Gild*  of  Florence      (London,  1906.) 
STOWK,  A    M      English  Grammar  Schools  in  the  Reign 

of  Qua  n  Elizabeth      (New  York,  1908  ) 
UNWIN,  CJ      Gilds  and  Companies  of  London      (London, 

1908  ) 

Report  of  the  Citu  of  London  Livery  Companies'  Commis- 
sion     (London,  1884  ) 


GILDvS,  TEACHERS' 


OILMAN 


GILDS,     TEACHERS'  —Those     were    as- 
sociations which  arose  in  the  sixteenth  century 
to  protect  those  teachers  of  primary  subjects 
who  had  municipal  recognition  against  the  com- 
petition of  the  wandering  scholars,  dame  and 
hedge-schools  (Wmkehchulen)      Such  organiza- 
tions were  confined  to  German  v,  though  at  least 
one    is    found    in    Holland- Harlem      There    is 
definite   information    bearing  on   the   gilds  in 
Munich  (1564),  Nuremberg  (1013),  Frank  fort- 
a.-M    (1613),  and   Lubeck   (1053),   while  they 
also  existed  in  Augsburg,  Lands!) ut,  Hamberg, 
Stuttgart,    Tubingen,    Urach,    and    Kiunswick 
At  Lubeck  a  second  gild  of  teachers  of  reading 
and  prayers  was  also  orgam/ed      Their   oigan- 
ization  was  similar  to  that  of  other  gilds,  which 
were    practically    on    the    decline    when    the 
teachers   oigamzed      A   period    of   apprentice- 
ship, varying  from  three  to  nine  years,  and  begin- 
ning with  the  sixteenth  or  eighteenth  year,  was 
imposed      An   examination   had  to  be  passed 
to  become  a  journeyman  or  assistant  teacher 
The  assistant  could  be  employed  for  pay  by 
a  master  and  could  also  give  private  lessons, 
part  of  the  proceeds  going  to  his  master      When 
a  vacancy  occurred  in  the  gild,  it  was  filled  by 
the    oldest    assistant    on    proving    his    ability, 
usually  by  writing  out,  with  great   flounshes 
a    signboard,     a    Latin    motto,    eg     I'ahentm 
omnia  vtucit,  or  a  Biblical  quotation,  and  the 
master's  name  foimed  the  content      The  gilds 
struggled    with   difficulty   against    competition 
but  without  success,  in  spite  of  piotests  to  the, 
municipal   councils,   which  supervised  and  in- 
spected   their    schools      On    the    whole    their 
influence    was   baneful,     they    kept   down   the 
number  of  schools   by   increasing  the  number 
of  pupils  in  the  few  fa\  ored  institutions  with- 
out adding  to  the  accommodations,  the  quali- 
fications   for    membership     weie     not    alvuus 
strictly  adhered  to,   the  sons,  widows,  01  daugh- 
teis    of    deceased    members    \\eic    sometimes 
allowed  to  continue  schools  without,   being  ic- 
quned    to    go    through    the    legulai     loutme 
Materially  the  gilds  did  not  impiove  the  posi- 
tion of  their  members,  for  manv  had  to  supple- 
ment  their   slight  income    by  alms      One  ad- 
vantage, however,  did  accrue,    members  of  the 
gilds   were   tpso  facto   citizens      The  gilds  lin- 
gered   on    ineffectually    until    the    end    of    the 
eighteenth    century    *  The    Munich    gild    was 
finally  dissolved  in   1801,  the  capable  teachcis 
being  incorporated  into  the  state  system      At 
Nuremberg,   the  gild  was  driven  out  in   1X18 
on  the  introduction  of  paid  teachers,    while  at 
Lubeck  the  last  was  heard  of  the  gild  in  the 
same  year 

Sec  TEACHERS'  VOLUNTARY  ASSOCIATIONS 

References ;  — 

FISCHER,     K      Ge&chichtc     dc8     deutxchen     Volkt>t>chul- 
lehrer»tatidu>,  Vol   I,  rh   S       (Berlin,  18i)S  ) 

JVANDEL,    1     L       Th<     Training    of   Elementary    School 

teachers  in  Germany       (Nc«w  York,  1910  ) 
N,    W      EncyUo}Mi8ch<K  llandbuch  der 
s.v.  Zunjtweaen  der  Lehrer 


m 


GILL,  ALEXANDER  (1565-1635)  -  Head- 
master of  St  Paul's  school,  London,  from  160S 
till  1635  He  had  John  Milton  as  pupil  m  the 
school  from  1620  to  1625  (Jill  continued  the 
tradition  of  Mule-aster's  (q  v  )  interest  in  the 
study  of  the  English  language  as  shown  in 
Mulcaster's  Elemental  ie  1582,  and  in  1619 
published  the  book  for  which  he  is  best  known 
—  LoqoHomin  Anglica.qua  Genii*  tiermofacilm* 
addiscifur  He  advocated  the  phonetic  spelling, 
and  suggested  a  reform  of  the  alphabet  with 
that  purpose,  by  introducing  the  two  Anglo- 
Saxon  signs  foi  th  and  other  Anglo-Saxon  signs, 
together  with  dots  over  the  vowels  to  represent 
then  various  sounds,  he  gets  his  adequate  al- 
phabet Tn  the  feeling  of  pride  in  our  old 
Saxon  tongue  Gill  ranks  as  a  pioneer.  The 
most  interesting  section  of  the  Logon  omw 
Anglica  is  the  part  devoted  to  Syntax,  where 
he  begins  to  treat  of  the  figures  of  speech 
Following  on  the  lines  of  Abraham  Frauncc 
(q  v\  Gill  quotes  fiom  English  writers  to 
illustrate  the  English  usage  in  ihetoncal 
figures  The  significance  of  the  book  is  the 
establishment  of  Ramus's  method  of  illustra- 
tion of  rhetorical  figures  from  modern  sources, 
the  drawing  of  attention  to  the  beauties  of  the 
English  literary  writers,  and  the  beginnings  of 
the  study  of  English  literature  in  a  school 
textbook  The  curious  point  must  be  borne 
in  mind,  that  (Jill's  Logottonna  is  wiitten  in 
Latin  (Jill's  son,  also  called  Alexander  (1597- 
1642),  in  1621  became  under  usher  of  St  Paul's 
school  to  his  father,  and  was  teacher  and  friend 
of  Milton  Gill  fell  in  disgiace  in  1628, 
through  drinking  a  health  to  Felton,  the  assassin 
of  Buckingham,  and  belittling  the  king  Even- 
tually forgiven,  he  is  said  to  have  been  an  usher 
in  Farnaby's  (</  v  )  school,  and  in  1635,  succeeded 
his  father  as  High  01  Head  Master  of  St  Paul's 
School  He  died  in  1642,  having  gamed  the 
reputation  for  great  severity  in  connection  with 
school  teaching  p.  w. 

References .  — 

Dictionary  of  National  Biography,  Vol   XXI,  p   ,353 
MACDONNELL,  M     F    J      History  of  St    Pauls  School 

(London,  1'WW  ) 

WATHON,  FOSTEII      Bi ginnings  of  tht   Tenth IHQ  of  Mod- 
ern Subject*  in  England       (London,  1907  ) 

OILMAN,  DANIEL  COIT  (1831-1908)  — 
The  first  president  of  Johns  Hopkins  Univer- 
sity, and  one  of  the  leading  influences  in  Ameri- 
can educational  development  during  the  greater 
part  of  his  career  He  was  born  in  Norwich, 
Conn  ,  July  6,  1X31,  and  was  of  old  New  Eng- 
land ancestry  on  both  sides  (liaduatmg  at 
Yale  in  1852,  he  pursued  graduate  studies  at 
Harvard  for  a  year,  residing  in  the  home  of 
Arnold  (Uiyot,  the  geographer,  then  he  spent 
two  years  in  Europe,  where,  though  an  attache 
of  the  United  States  Legation  at  St  Peters- 
burg, he  found  opportunities  foi  seeing  and 
leaimng  much  of  England,  (reimany,  and 
France,  as  well  as  of  Russia  Returning  in  1855, 


OILMAN 


G1RARD  COLLEGE 


he  took  an  active  part  in  advancing  the  per- 
manent organization  of  the  Sheffield  Scientific 
School  at  Yale,  and  became  one  of  the  chief 
promoters  there  of  the  ideas  of  Ll  the  new  learn- 
ing."    He  was  an  ardent  champion  of  scientific 
studies  as  a  means  of  culture,  though  he  fully 
recognized  the  claims  of  the  classical  education; 
and  it  was  precisely  this  attitude  that  he  after- 
wards manifested  in  shaping  the  character  of 
Johns  Hopkins  University      He  was  made  as- 
sistant librarian  of  Yale  College  in  1856,  and 
afterwards  librarian  and  professoi   of  physical 
geography      Duung  his  connection  with  Yale, 
which  ended  in   1872  with   his  acceptance  of 
the  presidency  of  the  University  of  California, 
he  was  one  of  the  chief  influences  making  for 
progress   generally,    and   in   particular  for   the 
building  up  of  the  Sheffield  Scientific  School 
He  was  also  actively  connected  with  the  public 
school   system    of    Connecticut,   in   which    he 
introduced      important      improvements       The 
University  of  California,  under  his  presidency, 
from  1872  to  1875,  underwent  a  most  remark- 
able development,  in  spite  of  the  obstacles  intei- 
posed    by   political    interference      He    became 
president  of  Johns  Hopkins  University  in  1875 
The  establishment  of  Johns  Hopkins  Univer- 
sity in  1876  marks  an  epoch  m  the  history  of 
education  and  learning  in  America,  and  it  is  to 
Oilman  that  the  determination  of  its  character 
must  be  ascribed      From  the  beginning,  he  set 
before  himself  the  object  of  making  the  new  in- 
stitution a  means  of  supplying  to  the  nation 
intellectual  training  of  a  higher  order  than  could 
be  obtained  at  existing  American  colleges  and 
universities,   and  at  the  end  of  a  yeai  of  travel 
and  inquiry  he  had  gathered,  as  a  nucleus,  six 
piofessors    of    eminent    ability,    under    whom, 
with  the  aid  of  younger  associates,  there  was 
launched,  for  the  first  time  in  this   country, 
a    university    whose    standards    and    activities 
weie  on  a  level  with  those  of  the  great  institu- 
tions  of   Europe      The   establishment  of  full- 
fledged  "  graduate  schools,"  the   naturalization 
of  research  as  a  leading  element  in   American 
umvcisities,  and  the  development  on  a  great 
scale    of   scientific  and   scholarly   publications, 
date    from    the    loundation    of    Johns     Hop- 
kins   University      And    a    singular    testimony 
to    the    importance    of    Oilman's    influence    in 
hastening  this  development  is  furnished  by  the 
fact  that,  although  it  was  not  until  seventeen 
yeais  later  that  funds  were  available  for  the 
opening  of  the  Johns  Hopkins  Medical  School, 
no  othei  institution  in  the  meanwhile  attempted 
to  bring  about  '*  the  prodigious  advancement 
of    medical    teaching" — to    quote    President 
Eliot  —  which  was  there  effected  under  ( hlman's 
guidance,  and  in  accordance  with  the  aim  that 
he  had  cherished  from  the  beginning 

In  1901  Oilman  resigned  the  presidency  of 
Johns  Hopkins  In  1(M)2  he  became  the  fust 
president  of  the  Carnegie  Institution,  he  le- 
signed  that  office  in  190*1,  but  continued  as  a 
trustee*  of  the  institution  until  his  death 


112 


Throughout  his  life,  in  addition  to  his  educa- 
tional activities,  he  was  deeply  and  actively  in- 
terested in  public  improvement  and  in  practical 
philanthropic  effort,  being,  in  particular,  one 
of  the  pioneer  workers  in  charity  organization 
and  in  civil  service  reform  He  succeeded  Carl 
Schurz  as  president  of  the  National  Civil  Ser- 
vice Reform  League ,  his  connection  with  the 
Peabody  Fund,  the  Slater  Fund,  and  the  Rus- 
sell Sage  Foundation  was  of  great  importance; 
and  he  served  on  many  public  and  semi-public 
commissions  His  contributions  to  periodical 
literature*  were  numerous,  and  he  was  one  of 
the  chief  editors  of  the  New  International 
Encyclopedia  He  wrote  a  Life  of  Janice  D 
Dana  and  the  volume  on  James  Montoe  in  the 
"  American  Statesmen  "  series  He  edited 
the  Miscellaneous  Witting*  of  Francis  Licber, 
and  prepared  an  edition  of  De  Tocqueville's 
Democracy  in  America,  for  which  he  wrote  an 
elaborate  introduction  Two  other  volumes 
published  by  him  are  University  Addresses  and 
The  Launching  of  a  UnivciMty  He  died  at 
Norwich,  Conn,  Oct  13,  1908*  F.  F. 

See  JOHNS  HOPKINS  UNIVERSITY 

Reference  •  — 

FRANKLIN,  FABIAN      Life  of  Daniel  Coit  Oilman      (New 
York,  1910) 

GILPIN,  WILLIAM  (1724-1804)  —School- 
master, author,  and  aitist  He  graduated  B  A 
at  Oxford  in  1744  and  was  ordained  in  1746 
A  few  years  latei  he  took  over  a  boarding  school 
at  Cheam,  Surrey,  which  he  kept  successfully 
for  neaily  thirty  years  and  handed  on  to  his 
son  The  school  is  still  in  existence  under  the 
charge  of  a  descendant  of  (Jilpm  The  distin- 
guishing marks  of  the  school  were  the  study  of 
the  vernacular,  of  gardening  and  business, 
the  boys  engaging  m  practical  commerce  on 
then  own  accounts,  the  elimination  of  corporal 
punishment,  replaced  by  tiial  by  juiv  and  fines 
which  were1  spent  for  the  general  welfare  of  the 
whole  school,  and  confidence  in  and  i chance  on 
the  boys'  sense  of  honor  As  Vicai  of  Bold  re 
(Jilpm  took  an  active  mteiest  in  the  social 
welfare  of  his  panshioneis  and  gave  a  number 
of  his  pictures  to  endow  a  pansh  school  In 
1779  he  published  Lecture^  on  the  Church 
CatechtKtn,  which  had  been  prepared  earliei 
for  his  pupils  His  writings  consisted  of  bi- 
ogiaphies  of  eminent  English  Churchmen,  in- 
cluding his  own  ancestor  Beniard  Gilpm,  and 
descriptions  of  points  of  artistic  interest  in 
England  accompanied  with  his  own  sketches 

Reference :  — 
Dictionary  of  National  Biography 

GIRARD  COLLEGE,  PHILADELPHIA,  PA 

—  An  institution  founded  by  the  will  of  Stephen 
(iiraid  (<//>)  for  "poor  white  mule  orphan" 
childien,  and  opened  in  1S4S  The  institution 
was  placed  in  tiust  of  the  Councils  of  the  City 
of  Philadelphia,  and  is  now  managed  by  the 


GIRARD,  JEAN   BAPTISTE 


GIRARD,   STEPHEN 


Board  of  Directors  of  City  Trusts  Alexander 
Dallas  Bache  (q  v)  WHS  appointed  the  fust 
president  and  was  soul  by  the  trustees  to  Fur  ope 
to  make  a  survey  of  the  educational  institutions 
and  systems  By  one  of  the  teims  of  the  will 
"  no  ecclesiastic,  missionary  or  minister  of  any 
sect  whatsoever"  is  admitted  in  anv  capacity 
within  the  premises  of  the  institution  An 
attack  on  the  will  failed  in  the  courts  on  the 
ground  that  the  exclusion  of  ministers  was  not 
necessarily  an  attack  on  religion  or  bioad 
religious  teaching  Orphan  0  ('  fatherless) 
boys  are  admitted  between  the  ages  of  six  and 
ten  years  and  receive  a  training  such  as  will 
enable  them  to  earn  their  own  living  at  fourteen 
to  eighteen  years  of  age  The  enrollment  in 
December,  1911  was  1491. 

References :  — 

BARNARD      American      Journal     of     Education,     Vol 
XXVll.pp  593-01(1 

Report  of  the  Bouid  of  Dnectot^  of  ('it}/  7'/u,s^s  of  th(  City 

of  Philadelphia       (Philadelphia,  annual) 
Httni-Centenntnl  of  Girard   ColUf/i,    1848-18^)8      (Phila- 
delphia, 1<S()8  ) 

GIRARD,  JEAN  BAPTISTE  (1765-1850) 
—  Better  known  as  Pere  Gre"goire  Chi  aid,  a 
contemporary  and  fellow-countryman  of  Pesta- 
lo/zi  Bom  in  Fieiburg,  he  attended  the 
Jesuit  school  there  and  at  the  age  of  seventeen 
joined  the  Franciscan  Order  lie  spent  his 
novitiate  in  Lucerne  and  thence  pioceeded  to 
the  University  of  Wurzburg,  where  he  studied 
theology  \\hen  the  Swiss  government  had 
the  reform  of  public  education  under  considera- 
tion, he  drew  up  a  plan  foi  primary,  secondary, 
and  cantonal  schools  and  a  national  Swiss 
university,  as  a  result  of  which  he  was  ap- 
pointed secretary  to  the  Minister  for  Culture 
and  Education,  to  act  as  advisor  in  the  Catholic 
interests  Finding  that  his  advice  was  raiely 
sought,  he  became  pastor  in  Berne  (1800-1804), 
where  his  broad  humanitarian  sympathies  cut 
acioss  denominational  limitations  and  en- 
deared him  to  everybody  He  devoted  him- 
self mainly  to  the  study  of  education  and  was 
inspired  by  the  efforts  of  Pestalo/zi  at  this 
period  His  opportunity  came  in  1804  when 
he  was  called  to  his  native  city  to  organize 
public  education  For  more  than  twenty 
years  he  strove  with  great  success  to  reform 
educational  practice  and  theory  Starting 
with  40  pupils,  the  school  in  1820  had  400 
pupils,  and  the  idea  of  education  became  estab- 
lished as  essential  to  public  welfare,  not  only 
m  the  minds  of  most  of  his  fellow-citizens,  but 
also  m  the  surrounding  cantons  The  school 
was  much  visited  by  foreign  observers  But 
the  work  of  Pestalozzi  tended  to  overshadow 
that  of  Girard  who  aimed  to  put  the  master's 
theories  into  practice  so  far  as  possible  In 
1809  he  was  sent  with  the  commission  appointed 
by  the  government  to  Yverdun,  and  his  report  on 
the  whole  was  satisfactory  (Rapport  sur  I'ln- 
vtttut  dc  Pestalozzi  prfaente  a  la  haute  Dtete  de 


la  N///,s,xr)  Unfortunately  the  labois  of  Giraid 
were  suspended  by  the  reactionaries  as  tending 
to  undermine  religion  and  as  being  i  evolutional  >  , 
and  in  182,*  the  school  was  closed  (lirard  ic- 
tired  to  Lucerne,  when*  he  devoted  himself  to 
writing  and  recommending  educational  rcfoim 

Girard  was  strongly  influenced  m  the  direc- 
tion of  the  moral  and  religious  end  of  educa- 
tion. Pestalo/zi's  work  he  criticized  on  the 
ground  that  too  much  emphasis  was  laid  on 
the  intellectual  and  too  little  on  the  emotional 
and  volitional  aspects  He  accepted  the  theoiy 
of  harmonious  development  as  the  aim  of 
instruction,  but  here  again  he  held  that  Pesta- 
lozzi  overemphasized  the  mathematical  sub- 
jects, which  he  feared  would  lead  to  material- 
ism Nature  study,  history,  and  geography 
were  all  to  lead  to  a  recognition  of  God,  much 
in  the  same  way  as  Froebel  proposed  The 
lack  of  teachers  compelled  Girard  to  adopt  the 
monitorial  system  (1810),  which,  strangely 
enough,  formed  the  center  of  attack  on  the 
part  of  his  opponents  His  school  was  divided 
into  four  grades,  and  each  subject  was  reviewed 
anew  and  expanded  m  each  grade  He  won 
the  affection  of  hus  pupils  to  a  remarkable  degree, 
and  on  his  way  to  and  from  school  he  was 
always  attended  by  a  large  gioup  of  them 

His  chief  work  was  the  Langne  materncllc 
enseignee  a  la  Jcu7ie.\\e  com  me  Moi/en  dc  De- 
veloppement  intellect  uel,  moial  ct  ichgicui  (The 
veinacular  taught  to  the  i/oung  «.s  a  mean*  of 
intellectual,  moral,  a?id  religious  development),  in 
seven  volumes,  the  first  dealing  with  his  peda- 
gogical views  Here  he  recogm/es  the  loosen- 
ing of  the  bonds  of  family,  church,  and  state, 
arid  for  that  reason  urges  control  through 
moral  and  religious  education  This  work 
secured  him  in  1844  the  prize  awarded  by  the 
Paris  Academy  Other  works  were  Dialogue* 
sur  I'l  institution  dex  Eiohsdc  Campagnc,  Diver* 
7)/,srowr.s  et  Dissertation*  sur  Jr.s  fin  jets  de  Peda- 
gogic gencjaej,  De*  Moi/en*  d'attacher  la  Jeu- 
d  ,srs  Etude*  et  d'activei  .srs  Progiev 


References  :  — 

LtiTHi,  K      Pain  Grvgor  Girard       (Brrrio,  1^) 
NAVILLK,  E       Ptrt  Girard,    in  Hctutil  dt  Mo 

Pudayo(ji(ju<j\,  pp    72-9()       (Lausanne,  1S1)(>  ) 
Notice  but  la  VK   tt  /cs  ()  u  vi  aye**  dtt  P    Girard       (P.'irih, 

n  d  ) 
SCHNMIWL\,    J       Ecolr    du    Put     Girmd      (Freiburg, 

1905) 

GIRARD,  STEPHEN  (1750-18.il)  — 
Founder  ot  Girard  College  foi  Orphans, 
attended  the  schools  of  France,  but  was  largely 
self-educated  He  was  foi  many  yeais  engaged 
in  commercial  pursuits,  and  left  Ins  fortune  to 
various  philanthropic  and  educational  institu- 
tions He  bequeathed  $2,000,000  for  the 
establishment  of  a  college  foi  orphans  in  Phila- 
delphia W.  S  M 

See  GIKARD  COLLEGE 

References  :  — 

AREY,    HENRY    W      Girard    College   and   its    Founder. 
(Philadelphia,  I860) 


VOL   ill  —  I 


113 


GIRLS 


GLADSTONE 


HENRY       Aim  man    Joninul    of    Ktliuuhou, 
1S77,  Vol   XXVII,  pp   .VM-hll. 

SiMi'MON,    HTEPHKN-       Af/V    »f  Mt  ph(  n    <,'nnr</      (T'hilu- 
dolphm,  1S,'12  ) 

GIRLS,  EDUCATION  OF  -  The  various 
aspects  of  tins  subject  are  treated  under  sepa- 
rate titles.  The  existing  practices  concerning 
the  education  of  girls  with  boys  are  presenled 
under  the  title  COEDUCATION  One  phase  of 
this  question  is  discussed  briefly  under  SEGRE- 
GATION The  histoiy  of  the  education  of  girls 
in  America  is  included  in  the  article  on  CO- 
LONIAL PERIOD  IN  AMERICAN  EDUCATION. 
The  early  history  of  European  practice  is  in- 
cluded m  the  article  on  MIDDLE  AGES,  EDUCA- 
TION IN  The  general  place  of  girls*  education 
in  various  countries  at  the  present  time  is 
given  in  the  articles  on  the  separate  national 
systems,  The  entire  subject  of  higher  educa- 
tion is  treated  in  ertenw  under  the  caption 
WOMEN,  HIGHKR  EDUCATION  OF 

GIRLS'   PUBLIC   DAY  SCHOOL  TRUST. 

—  An  organization  founded  in  England  in  1872 
to  provide  secondary  education  for  girls  It- 
was  an  outcome  of  the  larger  movement  which 
centered  in  the  National  Union  for  Improving 
the  Education  of  Women  The  Trust  num- 
bered among  its  promoters  Mis  William  (trey, 
Miss  Gurney,  and  Sir  J  P  Kay-Shuttle  worth. 
The  work  was  organized  on  a  commercial  basis, 
and  the  shareholders  receive  a  dividend  of  five 
per  cent,  any  surplus  being  devoted  to  im- 
proving the  schools  The  first  school  was 
opened  at  Chelsea  The  aim  of  the  Trust  is 
declared  to  be  to  provide  for  girls  opportunities 
similar  to  those  open  to  boys  in  the  great 
Public  Schools  <l  Particular  stress  is  laid  on 
the  formation  of  character  by  moral  and 
religious  training  and  for  fitting  gnls  for  the 
practical  business  and  duties  of  life  "  A  full 
secondary  school  course  is  provided  in  all  the 
schools,  which  number  more  than  thirty  and 
have  over  7000  pupils  A  training  department 
for  teachers  in  secondary  schools,  as  well  as  in 
drawing  and  music,  is  maintained  at  the  Clap- 
ham  High  School,  which  also  prepares  foi  the 
Teachers'  Diploma  of  London  and  Cambridge 
Universities  and  the  Froebel  Certificate 
Special  courses  in  domestic  economy  are  given 
in  some  schools  to  pupils  who  have  completed 
the  legular  courses  The  fees  charged  vary 
according  to  the  age  of  the  pupil  from  £9  9.si. 
to  £15  15.s.  ($47-478  a  year)  A  few  scholar- 
ships are  maintained  at  each  school 

References :  — 

BREMNER,  C    S      The  Education  of  Gnls  and  Women 

(London,  1897) 

Girl*'  tirhool  Yeai  Book       (London,  annual  ) 
SCHMID,  K   A      (Jetichichtc  dn  Erzithnng,  Vol    V,  Pt   2, 

pp   298-.iOO      /-)«*  MadchenBihulwetten  in  England. 

(Stuttgart,  18*4-11)02.) 

GIRTON  COLLEGE,  CAMBRIDGE,  ENG- 
LAND —  An  institution  founded  in  1869  at 

114 


Henslow  House,  Hit  chin,  foi  the  higher  educa- 
tion of  \\oinen  T1  \Mit>  the  outcome  of  the 
efforts  of  Miss  Kinilv  DHVICK  who  had  unsuc- 
cessfully tried  to  influence  the  Schools  Inquiry 
Commission  (1865-1S67)  to  support  the  estab- 
lishment of  such  an  institution  Through  her 
hook  The  Higher  Education  of  Women  (1866) 
she  had  contributed  to  the  progress  of  the 
women's  educational  movement  in  England. 
In  1808  she  secured  influential  support  and 
subscriptions  which  led  to  the  opening  of  the 
house  at  Hitchm  with  six  students.  In  187.3 
the  college  was  moved  to  (iirton  College,  near 
Cambridge.  Instruction  was  given  by  the 
resident  tutors  and  several  professors  of  the 
University  along  the  lines  of  the  university 
requirements,  and  the  students  were  admitted 
to  university  lectures  by  courtesy  In  1881  the 
Senate  granted  permission  to  the  students  to 
present  themselves  for  the  university  Tripos 
examinations  for  degrees,  the  College  grants 
degree  certificates,  but  not  degrees  on  the 
results  At  the1  same  time  the  lectures  were 
tin  own  open  to  the  women  The  remarkable 
successes  of  the  students  gave  a  considerable 
impetus  to  the  cause  of  higher  education  of 
women,  a  large  majority  of  the  alumnae  hav- 
ing devoted  themselves  to  teaching  in  girls' 
secondary  schools  The  enrollment  of  the 
college  in  1909-1910  was  158 

Reference :  — 

DAVIEH,  EMILI       Questions   relating   to    Women,  1860- 
1908      (Cambridge,  1910  ) 

GLADSTONE,  WILLIAM  EWART  (1809- 
1898)  — The  great  English  statesman  did  not 
play  as  gi  eat  a  part  in  the  development  of  Eng- 
lish education  as  might  be  expected  from  his 
general  interest  in  national  welfare  and  progress. 
He  approached  the  question  of  elementary  ed- 
ucation almost  entuely  with  a  strong  belief 
in  the  claims  of  an  established  church  In 
1888  he  was  a  member  of  the  Select  Committee 
for  the  Education  of  the  Poorer  Classes  ap- 
pointed to  consider  the  best  means  of  provid- 
ing useful  education  in  large  towns  Gladstone 
insisted  on  religious  education  as  a  basis  for 
state  aid  It  was  about  this  time,  too,  that 
lie  proposed  the  establishment  of  teachers' 
training  schools  in  every  diocese,  and  the 
licensing  of  teachers  by  bishops  In  1854  he 
was  instrumental  in  removing  tes-ts  on  admis- 
sion and  graduation  at  Oxford,  although  he 
insisted  that  the  teaching  and  governing  re- 
main functions  of  the  Church  of  England. 
He  was  opposed  to  a  Crown  Commission  to 
inquire  into  the  universities  and  would  have 
preferred  reform  from  within  When  the 
Education  Bill  of  1870  was  brought  forward  by 
Forster  (qv),  Gladstone  was  lukewarm  in  his 
support  As  he  himself  admitted  later  in  a 
review  of  a  biography  of  Forster  (Nineteenth 
Century,  September,  1888),  his  views  "  were  by 
no  means  identical  with  the  views  of  Forster  " 


GLASGOW 


GLASGOW 


"  My  responsibility,"  he  writes,  "  is  that  of 
coneurrenee  rather  than  of  authorship  "  He 
would  have  preferred  a  system  of  local  option 
on  the  question  of  religious  instruction,  for,  as 
he  says,  u  in  all  things,  including  education,  1 
prefer  voluntary  to  legal  machinery,  when  the 
thing  can  be  well  done  either  way."  In  1873 
he  undertook  the  difficult  question  of  Irish 
University  Reform,  and  in  attempting  to  com- 
promise met  with  the  opposition  of  both  Catho- 
lics and  Protestants  on  account  of  his  "  gigan- 
tic scheme  of  godless  education  " 

As  a  scholar  Gladstone  stood  high  His 
love  for  the  classics  ranked  almost  next  to  his 
devotion  to  his  religion  Any  proposal  to  in- 
tioduce  pure  science,  natural  science,  modern 
languages,  and  modern  history  as  subjects 
equivalent  to  Latin  and  Greek  he  refused  to 
consider  as  possible,  all  of  the  new  subjects 
he  regarded  as  "  auxiliary  "  to  classical  train- 
ing And  his  argument  for  classics  was  based 
not  only  on  their  cultural  and  disciplinary 
value  but  on  the  fact  that  u  European  civiliza- 
tion from  the  middle  ages  downwaids  is  the 
compound  of  two  great  factors,  the  Christian 
religion  for  the  spirit  of  man,  and  the  Greek, 
and  in  a  secondary  degree  the  Roman,  disci- 
pline for  his  mind  and  intellect  "  At  the  same 
tune  lie  recognized  that  such  an  education  was 
for  the  elite  only,  "  it  can  only  apply  in  full 
to  the  small  proportion  of  the  youth  of  any 
country  who  are  to  become  in  the  fullest  sense 
educated  "  While  Gladstone's  influence  on 
English  education  was  very  slight,  the  point 
of  view  of  the  leader  demands  attention,  for  it 
is  representative  of  the  opinions  prevailing  in 
England  in  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury 

References :  — 

B \HNARD  American  Journal  of  Education,  Vol  XXII, 
pp  433,  4.i4  ,  Vol  XXVI,  pp  7(»1  766  (Speech  011 
Irish  Umvoisity  Question) 

Journal  of  Education  (London),  June,  1898,  pp  329-330. 

MORLLY,  LORD      Life  of  Gladstone      (London,  1903  ) 

GLASGOW,  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF.  —  A 

coeducational  institution  situated  in  Glasgow, 
Scotland,  founded  (1451),  like  most  other  ancient 
universities,  by  the  authority  of  the  Church  of 
Rome  The  Bishop  of  Glasgow  and  his  suc- 
cessors in  office  were  appointed  to  rule  over 
the  college  Up  till  1460  the  university  seems 
to  have  had  no  permanent  home,  but  in  that 
year,  James,  Lord  Hamilton,  bequeathed  to  the 
Principal  of  the  College  of  Arts,  and  his  suc- 
cessors m  office,  a  tenement  with  four  acres  of 
land  adjoining,  situated  in  the  old  High  Street 
of  the  city  In  buildings  on  this  site,  the 
classes  of  the  university  continued  to  meet  for 
upwards  of  four  hundred  years,  until  the  new 
university  buildings  situated  at  Gilmorehill 
were  ready  for  occupation  in  1870  Owing  to 
the  ecclesiastical  changes,  and  the  political 
conditions  of  the  country,  the  university  passed 
through  many  vicissitudes  during  the  first  two 


hundred  years  after  its  establishment,  and  it 
was  not  until  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth 
century  that  it  began  to  make  steady,  con- 
tinuous, and  permanent  progress  This  mani- 
fested itself  in  (1)  the  specialization  of  the 
teaching  within  the  University,  and  (2)  in 
the  establishment  of  new  chairs  During  the 
last  Decade  of  the  seventeenth  century  and 
the  whole  of  the  eighteenth  century,  eight 
new  professorships  were  established,  viz  . 
mathematics  (1691),  humanity  (1706),  oriental 
languages  (1709),  civil  law  (1712),  medicine 
(1712),"  history  (1716),  anatomy  (1718),  and 
astronomy  (1760)  Thereafter,  for  nearly  fifty 
years,  no  additional  chairs  were  added,  but 
beginning  with  the  establishment  of  the  chair 
of  natural  history  (1807)  there  came  the  estab- 
lishment of  professorships  in  surgery  (1815), 
midwifery  (1815),  chemistry  (1817),  botany 
(1818),  matena  medica  (1831),  institutes  of 
medicine  (1839),  forensic  medicine  (1839),  civil 
engineering  (1840),  conveyancing  (1861),  Eng- 
lish language  and  literature  (1861),  biblical 
criticism  (1861),  clinical  surgery  (1874),  clini- 
cal medicine  (1874),  naval  architecture  (1883), 
history  (1893),  pathology  (1893),  and  political 
economy  (1896)  During  the  present  century 
separate  chairs  have  been  founded  in  geology 
(1903),  zoology  (1903),  and  mining  (1906) 
Further,  since  1892  many  additional  lecture- 
ships have  also  been  established,  the  more  im- 
portant being  those  of  French,  German,  Italian, 
and  Celtic  in  the  Department  of  Language  and 
Literature,  education,  psychology,  and  political 
philosophy  in  the  Department  of  Philosophy, 
constitutional  law  and  history,  and  economic 
history  in  the  Department  of  History  and 
Law  In  addition,  both  in  medicine  and  in 
science,  lectureships  in  the  more  specialized 
departments  of  these  subjects  have  been  re- 
cently instituted 

The  present  buildings  in  the  west  of  1he 
city  were  opened  in  1870  In  addition  to  the 
buildings  used  for  teaching,  there  is  also  the 
Bute  Hall,  the  gift  of  the  late  Marquis  of 
Bute.  Here  are  held  the  graduation  and 
other  important  ceremonies  of  the  university 
Residences  are  provided  within  the  grounds 
for  the  principal  and  several  of  the  professors 
In  1893,  as  a  result  of  the  admission  of  women 
students  to  the  universities  of  Scotland,  the 
Governors  of  Queen  Margaret  College,  an 
institution  for  the  higher  education  of  women 
and  housed  in  North  Park,  handed  over  to  the 
university  its  buildings  and  grounds  for  the 
use  of  the  women  students  Since  then  Queen 
Margaret  College  has  ceased  to  be  an  inde- 
pendent institution  and  has  been  wholly  incor- 
porated with  the  university  Within  recent 
years,  extensive  additions  have  been  made  to 
the  original  buildings  at  Gilmorehill,  including 
(a)  classrooms  and  laboratories  for  the  teach- 
ing of  engineering ;  (&)  lecture  rooms,  a  museum 
and  herbarium  for  the  teaching  of  botany, 
and  (c)  an  extension  of  the  anatomical  depart- 


115 


GLASGOW 


GLOMERY 


men!  Two  other  groups  of  buildings  have 
lately  been  added,  one  for  the  teaching  of 
physics,  the  other  to  provide  better  accom- 
modation and  equipment  for  the  teaching  of 
physiology,  matena  medica,  and  forensic  medi- 
cine. 

The  present  constitution  of  the  umveisity 
dates  from  the  passing  of  the  Universities 
(Scotland)  Act  of  1858,  and  as  amended  by  the 
Act  of  1889,  and  is  similar  to  that  of  Edin- 
burgh (q  v )  and  other  Scottish  universities 
The  University  Court,  now  composed  of  four- 
teen members,  representative  of  the  General 
Council  of  graduates  of  the  Senatu*  Academicus 
and  of  the  students,  is  the  chief  governing  and 
administrative  body;  the  duties  of  the  Scriatus 
being  mainly  concerned  with  the  regulation  and 
superintendence  of  the  teaching  and  discipline 
within  the  university  The  woik  of  the  univer- 
sity is,  at  present,  divided  into  live  faculties  or 
departments,  viz  :  the  faculties  of  (1)  arts,  (2) 
science;  (3)  medicine,  (4)  law,  and  (5)  divinity 

The  Faculty  of  Arts  is  the  largest  in  the 
university  and  is  attended  by  more  than  1200 
students  yearly  It  provides  a  course  foi 
graduation  in  aits  The  work  of  the  faculty 
is  divided  into  four  departments,  vi/  :  those 
of  language  and  literature,  of  mental  philoso- 
phy, of  mathematics  and  science,  and  of  history 
and  law  The  course  for  graduation  may  be 
taken  either  in  five  or  six  subjects,  provided 
that  when  a  course  of  five  subjects  is  taken, 
two  of  these  must  be  studied  dining  1wo 
sessions,  and  an  examination  passed  on  a 
higher  standard  than  in  the  other  thiee  sub- 
jects of  the  course  If  a  curriculum  of  six  sub- 
jects is  chosen,  one  of  these  must  be  studied 
duimg  two  years,  and  of  the  other  five,  two 
must  be  cognate  (c  g  logic  and  moral  philoso- 
phy) and  miiht  be  taken  up  in  separate  sessions 
A  further  regulation  enacts  that  eveiv  cur- 
riculum for  the  ordinary  degree  in  arts  must 
include  a  philosophical  subject,  either  logic  or 
moial  philosophy  The  degree  with  honors  in 
arts  may  be  taken  in  the  following  departments 
of  study,  viz  :  (a)  classics,  (6)  philosophy, 

(c)  mathematics     and     natural     philosophy, 

(d)  English,    (e)      history,      (/)      economics, 
(g)   French  and   German,  (/?)   French,   Italian, 
Latin  (any  two),   (0   Germanic  language  and 
literature   (with  English),    (j)   Celtic  language 
and   literature  (with   Latin),  (A)  Semitic   lan- 
guages (Hebrew  and  Arabic) 

In  the  Faculty  of  Science,  in  addition  to  the 
course  leading  to  the  degree  of  Bachelor  in 
Pure  Science,  courses  are  also  provided  in 
applied  science,  leading  to  the  bachelor's  degree 
in  (a)  engineering,  in  (b)  agriculture,  in  (c) 
public  health,  and  in  (r/)  pharmacy  Higher 
degrees  in  both  science  arid  arts  may  be  con- 
ferred on  graduates  on  the  presentation  and 
approval  of  a  thesis  after  five  years  from  the 
date  of  their  graduation 

In  the  Faculty  of  Medicine,  courses  are  pro- 
vided for  students  leading  to  the  degree  of 


Bachelor  of  Medicine  and  Bachelor  of  Suigerv 
(MB,  CM)  The  couise  normally  extends 
over  live  years  Holders  of  the  lower  degree 
may  on  certain  conditions  proceed  thereafter 
to  the  degree  of  Doctor  of  Medicine  (M  D  ) 
or  Master  of  Surgery  (M  Ch  ) 

The  Faculty  of  Law  provides  two  degree 
courses,  one  open  only  to  graduates  and  lead- 
ing to  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Laws  (LL  B  ), 
and  the  other  and  lower  degree  of  Bachelor  of 
Law  (B  L  )  open  to  non-graduates  m  arts  on 
certain  conditions  The  faculty  of  divinity 
provides  a  course  for  graduates  in  arts  leading 
to  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Divinity  (B  D  ) 
Honorary  degrees  may  also  be  conferred  in 
law  (LL  D  )  and  in  divinity  (D  D  ) 

The  total  number  of  students  in  attendance 
during  session  1909-1910  was  2728,  made  up 
as  follows  arts,  1253,  medicine,  698,  science, 
443,  law,  204,  divinity,  61  Enrolled  in  more 
than  one  faculty  20,  single-course  students,  48 
Since  1892,  when  the  University  was  thrown 
open  to  women  students,  the  number  has 
gradually  increased  In  session  1909-1910 
women  students  numbered  642,  of  whom  534 
were  enrolled  in  the  Faculty  of  Arts  and  71  in 
the  Faculty  of  Medicine  *  The  staff  of  the 
University,  at  present,  embraces  32  professors 
and  52  lecturers  (exclusive  of  assistants  to 
proiessois)  A  D 

References .  — 

OOUTTH,  ,J       A  History  of  the  University  of  Glasgow  from 
th  Foundation  in  14,11   to   1909       (Glasgow,  1<KW  ) 

Glasgow  Unix  orsitv      Rccoid  of  th<  Ninth  Juhilrt  ,  /^7/ 
1901      (CJhiHKow,  1901  ) 

K&itii,    J       Kcottibh    Education,    School    and    Untvcr\tti/ 
fiont  Early  Tnnct,  to  1908       (C'amhrul^c,   11)10) 

STRONG,  J      A  ///s/u/v  of  tiwondun/  Education  in  Scot- 
land from  th<  Earliest  Tunes  to  19O8      (Oxford,  1 909  ) 

GLENALMOND,  TRINITY  COLLEGE  — 

See  GRAMMAR  SCHOOLS,  ENGLISH,    COLLEGES, 
ENGLISH,  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

GLOBES  —See  MAPS 

GLOMERY  —  This  word  is  simply  a  cor- 
ruption of  the  word"  grammar/'  dating  (appar- 
ently) from  the  thirteenth  century  Owing  to 
its  use  at  Cambridge  as  late  as  the  sixteenth 
century,  where  the  Master  of  Glomery  (Magistei 
ghmcrice)  in  1533-1544  exercised  the*  functions, 
afterwards  performed  by  the  professor  of  Greek 
and  the  Public  Orator,  of  presenting  for  degrees, 
a  great  deal  of  wild  guessing  took  place  as  to 
its  meaning  Fuller,  in  his  History  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Cambridge,  published  in  1659,  leaves 
it  as  a  mystery  "  Let  it  suffice  us  to  know 
that  the  original  of  the  word  seems  barbarous, 
his  office  narrow  and  topical  (confined  to  Cam- 
bridge) and  his  certain  use  at  this  day  anti- 
quated and  forgotten  "  Even  Dr  Rashdall,  in 
his  Universities  of  Europe,  speaks  of  the  Master 
of  Glomery  as  a  "  wholly  peculiar  Cambridge 
institution  "  Dr  (Jams,  the  Elizabethan  his- 
torian of  Cambridge,  had  derived  the  name  "  as 


116 


GLOMERY 


GNOSTICISM 


if  so  c'iillrcl  a  glomeiando  from  '  going  round 
about  '  the  Regent-houses  to  collect  the  votes 
at  congregations ,  or  from  '  gathering  their 
votes  glomcrated/  that  is,  rolled  and  lounded 
up  in  a  piece  of  paper  " 

In  point  of  fact  the  Master  of  Glomcry  at 
Cambridge  was  at  first  nothing  more  than  the 
grammar  schoolmaster  The  first  extant  notice 
of  him  is  in  a  document  of  the  year  1276,  m 
which  the  Bishop  of  Kly  regulated  the  rela- 
tions and  defined  the  area  of  jurisdiction  of  the 
Master  of  Glomcry,  the  Chancellor  of  the 
university,  and  the  Archdeacon  of  Ely  The 
grammar  master  is  to  have  exclusive  jurisdic- 
tion in  all  cases  in  which  grammar  scholars 
(glomerelh)  are  dependents,  as  other  masters 
have  in  the  cases  of  their  scholars,  so  that 
whether  university  scholars  or  laymen  wish  to 
convene  grammar  scholars  or  get  anything 
from  them  by  judicial  process  they  shall  do  it 
before  the  Glomery  Master  unless  it  be  a  ques- 
tion of  rent  of  lodgings  or  involving  loss  of 
university  rights  when  the  Ghawelloi  is  to 
decide  The  grammai  beadle  was  not  to  carry 
his  mace  in  university  convocations  nor  before 
the  Chancellor,  but  he  might  continue  to  do  so 
elsewhere,  especially  when  executing  his  office 
This  document  is  of  great  interest  in  the  his- 
torv  of  universities  as  it  showed  how  the  later 
juiisdiction  of  the  Chancellor  of  the  students 
of  the  higher  or  university  faculties  had 
eclipsed  the  glory  of  the  pieexisting  giummar 
schoolmastei  That  the  Glomery  Master  was 
nothing  more  is  clear  from  the  oath  which  he 
took  on  admission  by  the  Archdeacon  of  Kly 
to  discharge  all  the  duties  of  the  glomery 
school  of  Cambridge  (opera  scolarum  glomence 
CantibriguB)  without  any  extortion  from  the 
scholais  The  oaths  and  names  of  the  Glomcrv 
Masters  until  1437  are  preserved  in  the  Aich- 
deacon  of  Ely's  book  now  at  Cams  College 
The  (ilomery  School  was,  undei  the  title  of 
Gramer  Scolc,  granted  to  trustees  of  King's 
College  and  incorporated  in  its  site  in  1440, 
but  the  lane  in  which  it  had  stood  was  still 
called  Glomery  Lane*  when  Dr  Cams  wrote  in 
the  reign  of  Elizabeth  After  1437  the  Glomcry 
Master  appeared  to  have  been  meicly  the  super- 
intendent of  the  grammai  schools  in  Cambridge 
and  head  of  the  grammar  faculty  presenting 
candidates  for  the  degree  in  grammai  The 
last  who  enjoyed  the  title  was  Sir  John  Chcke 
(q  v  )  in  1533-1534,  and  it  is  piesumod  that 
his  office  was  deemed  to  be  merged  in  that  of 
the  Professor  of  Greek  That  the  term  is 
not  peculiar  to  Cambridge  appears  from  the 
earliest  account  roll  of  the  grammar  school 
attached  to  Merton  College,  Oxford  In  the 
year  1277,  20s  was  paid  to  the  grammai  master 
(magistro  glomcne)  for  five  boys  for  one  term, 
or  at  the  rate  of  4,s.  a  head  At  Bury  St 
Edmunds,  in  1288  or  1289,  an  official  issued 
a  mandate  against  certain  pedagogues  wrong- 
fully usurping  the  title  of  master  who  pre- 
sumed to  keep  adulterine  schools,  pretending 


to  teach  dialecticians,  grammar  scholars  (<,L> 
mercllos)  against  the  will  of  the  schoolmastei 
of  St  Edmunds,  and  directing  then  excom- 
munication A  similar  mandate,  a  few  years 
later,  was  directed  against  John  Harrison  for 
teaching  ffloniMcllvb  and  other  pupils  At 
Salisbury  in  1308  the  grammar  schoolhousc  is 
described  as  *cole  glomcnv,  which  in  1322  appears 
as  scolt  gfamaticales,  thus  establishing  the 
identity  of  meaning  beyond  doubt 

The  corruption  is  probably  of  French  origin 
as  it  appears  in  the  Battle  of  the  Seven  Aits 
of  Henry  d'Andelv  written  about  1250  (ed  A 
Ileion,  1881)  in  which  the  glomerians  assemble 
at  Orleans,  where  classics  were  still  the  pre- 
dominant study,  under  the  banner  of  giammar, 
to  attack  the  logicians  intrenched  at  Pans 

A    F    L 


GLOSSARIES, 

VOCABULARIES 


GR^CO-LATIN   —  See 


GNOSTICISM  —  During  the  second  cen- 
tury of  the  Christian  Era  there  arose  a  strange 
medley  of  doctrinal  speculations,  known  as 
Gnosticism,  which  disturbed  the  peace  of  the 
Church  and  necessitated  the  development  of  a 
Christian  theology  They  represented  a  sys- 
tematic eliort  to  fuse  Christianity  into  the  vast 
fabric  of  speculation  erected  by  philosophic 
thought  Men  of  keen  intelligence,  having 
embraced  Clnistiaiuty,  naturally  applied  to  its 
investigation  the  methods  of  Jewish  learning 
and  Greek  philosophy  There  soon  sprang 
into  existence  a  multitude  of  pantheistic- 
idealistic  sects,  varying  widely  in  their  ideas, 
but  agreeing  upon  certain  basic  principles 
They  all  piofessed  a  <7?w,s/,s  01  spiritual  en- 
lightenment They  regarded  Christianity  as  a 
system  of  metaphysics  to  be  expressed  m  the 
categories  of  specula!  ne  thought  They  held 
that  the  soul  attains  its  nghtful  end,  not  by 
faith  and  woiks,  but  by  receiving  a  tradition  of 
knowledge,  communicated  only  to  the  initiated 
few  and  to  which  the  masses  of  mankind 
could  not  attain  This  doctrine  of  salvation 
by  knowledge  limited  the  enjoyment  of  reli- 
gion to  a  few  illummati  The  Gnostics  were 
"  those  who  knew,"  a  superior  order  of  beings 
apait  from  ordinary  believers  Most  of  them 
wore  dualists  Adopting  the  familiar  axiom 
of  the  philosophers,  "  evil  inheres  in  matter," 
they  despised  the  physical  world  as  the  creation, 
not'  of  the  Supreme  Deity,  but  of  a  Demiurge, 
a  limited  secondary  god  Some  said  matter 
was  eternal,  others  explained  it  as  rubbish 
remaining  after  the  completion  of  the  spiritual 
phioma,  the  result  of  accident  or  negligence  m 
the  process  of  creation  They  regarded  the 
human  body  as  an  incumbrance  in  which  the 
soul  is  held  captive  and  from  which  it  will 
escape  at  death  They  denied  the  resurrection 
of  the  body  and  explained  away  the  Incarnation 
of  Christ,  geneially  adopting  the  docetic  theory, 
that  Christ  was  a  pure  spirit  with  a  phantasmal 


117 


GODDARD 


GODWIN 


or  appantional  body.  To  account  for  the  evo- 
lution of  the  universe,  they  called  into  exist- 
ence a  series  of  "  endless  genealogies,"  a  long 
chain  of  lower  gods  or  aons,  connecting  the 
world  with  God  The  Demiurge  and  the 
material  world  were  more  or  less  antagonistic 
to  God,  and  this  present  existence  was  essen- 
tially evil  Thus  Gnosticism  was  a  philosophic 
and  religious  pessimism  It  was  too  specula- 
tive to  be  bound  by  scriptures,  creeds,  and 
sacraments  There  was  no  central  authority 
Every  Gnostic  teacher  shaped  his  theories  to 
suit  himself  and  garnished  them  with  "  great 
swelling  words "  The  Gnostics  were  more 
active  than  the  orthodox  Christians  in  literary 
and  educational  work  Their  great  teachers 
—  BasilidcH  (c  125),  Valentmus  (125-140), 
Bardesanes  (154-222),  Heiacleon  (c  1GO),  ami 
Marcion  (c  150)  made  many  disciples  who 
became  famous  educators  and  founded  colleges 
in  Antioch,  Alexandria,  and  other  centers  of 
learning  to  which  multitudes  of  students  were 
drawn  They  produced  a  vast  and  varied  col- 
lection of  writings,  most  of  which  have  perished 
The  Gnostic  theories  possess  a  curious  interest 
for  the  scientist,  and  especially  the  psychologist, 
because  of  their  original  and  often  fantastic 
efforts  to  solve  the  great  problems  of  life  and 
mind  W  R 

See  ALEXANDRIA  SCHOOLS  OF 

References :  — 

Anlc-Nitene    Father*,   under    Irentcus,    Trrtulhan,   and 

HippolytiiH      (Now  Yoik,  1890) 
HAHNACH,  A      History  of  Dogma      (London,  181)4  ) 
KING,  C   W       The  Gntntici*  and  their  Remmnb      (London, 

1887.) 

LJPHUJH,  R   A      Der  Gnosticismun      (Leipzig,  1800) 
RA!NY,     R      Ancient    Catholic    Chunk      (Now    York, 

1902) 
ROUTH,  M    ,T      Reliqutff  Sacrce.     (Oxford,  1848.) 

GODDARD,  WILLIAM  STANLEY  (1757- 
1845)  —  One  of  the  most  influential  Head- 
masters of  Winchester  College  Himself  edu- 
cated at  Winchester  and  Morton  College, 
Oxford,  where  he  graduated  BA  in  1781,  he 
became  usher  or  second  master  at  his  old 
school  in  1784  Under  l)r  Warton,  head- 
master at  this  time,  the  numbers  had  dwindled, 
discipline  was  lax,  and  scholarship  was  low 
As  a  result  of  a  "  rebellion  "  of  the  pupils,  Dr 
Warton  resigned  and  was  succeeded  bv  Dr 
Goddard  in  1796  He  introduced  a  new  spirit 
into  the  school;  the  numbers  increased,  the 
standard  of  scholarship  was  raised,  but  above 
all  he  showed  great  tact  in  managing  boys,  in 
putting  trust  in  them,  and  in  permitting  a 
certain  measure  of  self-government  Dr  Ar- 
nold was  a  pupil  at  Winchester  under  Goddard, 
and  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  he  owed  much 
to  his  influence  arid  to  Winchester  traditions, 
to  Goddard's  tact  Dr.  Arnold  frequently  re- 
curred A  large  number  of  boys  educated  at 
Winchester  at  this  period  attained  eminence  in 
later  life  Dr  Goddard  retired  in  1809,  became 
prebendary  of  St  Paul's  in  1814,  canon  of 


118 


vSahsbury  in  1829,  and  died  in  1845      He  gave, 
during   his  lifetime,  £25,000  to  his  old  school 
to  be  used  for  masters'  salaries  in  place  of  the 
iniquitous  system  of  gratuities 
See  WINCHESTER  COLLEGE 

References :  — 

ADAMH,  H   C      Wykehamica      (Oxford,  1878  ) 
Dictionary  of  National  Biography 

LEACH,  A    F      A  History  of  Winchester  College      (New 
York,  1899) 

GODWIN,    MARY    WOLLSTONECRAFT 

(1759-1797)  — An  English  author,  the  wife  of 
William  Godwin  (qv),  whose  political  and 
social  theories  she  shared  Impatient  with  a 
system  of  female  education  which  made  puppets 
of  girls  and  killed  individuality,  she  wrote,  in 
1792,  the  Vindication  of  the  Right*  of  Women, 
a  remarkably  capable  plea  for  the  political, 
social,  and  intellectual  enfranchisement  of 
women  Her  geneial  thesis  is  41  make  women 
rational  creatures  and  free  citizens  and  they 
will  quickly  become  good  wives  and  mothers; 
that  is,  if  men  do  not  neglect  the  duties  of  hus- 
bands and  fathers  "  Women  should  be  "  free 
from  all  restraints  by  allowing  them  to  par- 
ticipate in  the  inherent  rights  of  mankind  " 
Hence  she  was  strongly  opposed  to  the  type 
of  education  proposed  bv  Rousseau  for  Sophia 
In  a  chapter  on  National  Education,  Miss 
Godwin  takes  occasion  to  criticize  seveiely 
private  education  and  private  and  boarding 
schools,  which  arc  marked  bv  tyranny  and 
slavery  to  forms  The  private  schools  give 
little  thought  to  inoial  tiainmg,  the  masters 
considering  then  duty  done  if  they  teach  Latin 
and  Greek  and  send  a  few  good  scholars  to  the 
universities  But  "it  is  not  foi  the  benefit 
of  society  that  a  few  brilliant  men  should  be 
bi ought  forward  at  the  expense  of  the  multi- 
tude "  Hence  she  advocat.es  a  system  of 
national  education  in  the  first  years,  at  least, 
on  a  puielv  demon  atie  basis  A  national 
system  should  provide  a  common  school  foi 
children  of  all  classes  from  the  age  of  five  to 
nine  Reading,  writing,  and  arithmetic,  natural 
history,  simple  experiments  in  natural  philoso- 
phy, botany,  mechanics,  astronomy,  religion, 
history,  and  politics  would  make  up  the  cur- 
riculum, but  play  m  the  open  air  must  novel 
be  neglected  After  the  age  of  nine  the  poorer 
children  would  go  to  industrial  schools  for 
vocational  training,  while  the  rich  would  study 
languages,  science,  history,  and  politics.  Both 
sexes  were  to  be  educated  together,  for  coedu- 
cation serves  to  perfect  both  not  only  morally, 
but  for  companionship  through  life 

In  her  other  work,  Thoughts  on  the  Education 
of  Daughter*  (1787),  she  also  attacks  the  nar- 
row training  of  girls  for  the  drawing  room, 
which  was  HO  characteristic  of  the  tune  Sug- 
gestions are  here  offered  for  the  education  of 
girls  which  would  leplace  the  prevailing  super- 
ficiality, weakness,  dependence,  and  affectation 
of  women  by  a  healthy  independence  and  desire 


GODWIN,   WILLIAM 


GODWIN,  WILLIAM 


to  share  m  the  world's  work  as  the  companions 
of  men.  Mrs  Godwin,  always  devoutly  reli- 
gious, took  a  strong  interest  m  moral  training 
of  children,  and  translated  Salzmann's  Moral- 
isches  Elcmentarbuch  (Elements  of  Morality, 
1790),  with  modifications  to  suit  English  con- 
ditions (See  SALZMANN,  CHRISTIAN  GOT- 
THILF  ) 

References :  — 

Dutionary  of  National  Biography 

GODWIN,  \\       Memoirs  of  Mary  Wollxtonetraft  Godwin. 

(Philadelphia,  1799) 

JEIIB,  C     Mary  Wollntom  craft      (London,  1912  ) 
PAUL,  r  KEG  AN     Mary  Wollytonecraft    (London,  1870  ) 
PLNNELL,  E  It      Life  of  Mary  W  ollat  oncer  aft      (Boston, 

1884  ) 
TAYLOR,  CJ    R   S      Mary  Wolhtonccrnft,  n  Htudy  in  Kco- 

nonnrx  and  Jtomancij      (London,  1911  ) 

WOLLSTONECKAFT,     MARY     (MRS      GODWIN)          Vindxa- 

tioti  of  the  HiykU  of  Women,  edited  with  introduc- 
tion by  Mrs  Henry  Fawcett  In  Humboldt 
Library  of  Science,  Vol  XV  (London,  1891  ) 

GODWIN,  WILLIAM  (17:>6-1836)  -  Eng- 
lish political  philosopher,  novelist,  and  anti- 
quarian,  the  son  of  a  dissenting  minister  and 
himself  a  minister  from  177$  to  17X3,  when  he 
came  under  the  influence  of  the  Fiench  phi- 
losophers and  English  republicans  lie  sym- 
pathized with  the  theory  of  the  Fiench  Revolu- 
tion, but  hardly  with  the  methods  of  procedure 
He  associated  with  the  most  prominent  Eng- 
lish radicals,  and  m  1793  his  Enquiry  concern- 
ing Political  Justice  and  its  Influence  on  Morals 
and  Happiness  placed  him  at  the  head  of  the 
extremists  This  work,  which  attracted  con- 
siderable attention  and  was  a  source  of  inspira- 
tion to  many  young  men,  was  an  attack  on  all 
forms  of  government  as  means  of  constraint 
and  control  The  relations  of  individuals  in 
society  should  be  regulated  on  a  basis  of  justice, 
"  a  principle  which  proposes  to  itself  the  pro- 
duction of  the  greatest  sum  of  pleasure  and  hap- 
piness," and  this  principle  in  turn  depends  on 
reason  Godwin's  belief  in  the  perfectability 
of  man  was  connected  with  his  belief  that  reason 
could  be  improved  indefinitely  Hence  he  be- 
lieved in  the  boundless  possibilities  of  educa- 
tion, of  which  all  alike  were  capable  In  this 
work  Godwin  held  that  the  differences  between 
individuals  due  to  heredity  were  of  small  ac- 
count and  would  disappear  under  the  influence 
of  a  common  education  The  administration 
of  education  he  would  not  leave  in  the  control 
of  a  national  government,  since  it  would  tend 
to  perpetuate  its  own  opinions  and  would  pre- 
vent the  development  of  an  open  mind  ready 
to  search  for  truth  rather  than  to  accept  opin- 
ions, and,  further,  private  endeavor  on  the 
part  of  teacher  and  taught  would  be  accom- 
panied by  "  enthusiasm  and  energy "  But 
while  this  work  was  evidently  written  under 
French  influence,  there  is  little  trace  of  Rous- 
seau in  Godwin's  educational  writings-  The 
Enquirer,  Reflections  on  Education,  Manners, 
and  Literature  (London,  1797),  and  Thought* 
on  Man;  his  Nature,  Production,  and  Dis- 


coveries (London,  1831)  In  the  Preface  of  the 
earlier  work  the  author  declares  his  belief  in 
the  intimate  connection  between  the  cause  of 
political  reform  and  the  cause  of  intellectual 
and  literary  refinement  The  objects  of  edu- 
cation arc  the  attainment  of  happiness,  virtue, 
and  wisdom,  each  of  these  depending  on  the 
other  In  discussing  the  value  of  private 
(tutorial)  or  public  education  (i  <'  m  school) 
Godwin  argues  in  favor  of  the  latter  on  social 
grounds,  for  "  to  practice  upon  a  smaller  theater 
the  business  of  the  world  must  be  one  of  the 
most  desirable  sources  of  instruction  and  morals," 
and  further,  the  child  learns  more  fiom  mtei- 
course  with  his  companions  than  from  the 
teacher  The  purpose  of  education  is  to  "  pro- 
vide against  the  age  of  five  and  twenty  a  mind 
well  regulated,  active,  and  prepaied  to  learn  " 
Hence  the  importance  which  he  attaches  to 
habit  formation  in  the  young;  the  school  is  not 
to  impart  knowledge  so  much  as  habits  of  in- 
tellectual activity  Godwin  accepted  the  dis- 
ciplinary value  of  the  classics,  for  the  retention 
of  which  he  states  arguments  which  have  not 
since  been  improved  upon  by  their  advocates 
But  the  most  remarkable  pronouncement  is 
that  on  method  in  the  essay  Of  the  Communi- 
cation of  Knowledge,  an  anticipation  of  the 
doctrine  of  interest  "  The  best  motive  to 
learn  is  a  perception  of  the  value  of  the  thing 
learned,  the  worst,  motive  may  well  be 

affirmed  to  be  constraint  and  fear,    there  is  a 
motive  between  these  desire  not  springing 

from  the  intrinsic  excellence  of  the  object,  but 
from  the  accidental  attractions  which  the 
teacher  may  have  attached  to  it  "  If  his  plan 
of  giving  the  pupil  a  motive  to  learn  and  smooth- 
ing out  his  difficulties  is  adopted,  the  author 
believes  that  the  face  of  education  will  be 
changed  and  "  no  such  characters  are  left  upon 
the  scene  as  either  preceptor  or  pupil  "  Ac- 
cording to  the  new  method  "  the  pupil  should 
go  first  and  the  master  follow  "  While  he 
admires  "  the  treatise  of  Rousseau  upon  edu- 
cation "  as  "  probably  a  work  of  the  highest 
value,"  he  criticizes  his  system  severely  be- 
cause of  lack  of  frankness  on  the  part  of  the 
tutor  and  because  of  the  deception  played  on 
the  pupil,  for  "  his  whole  system  is  a  series  of 
tricks,  a  puppet-show  exhibition,  of  which  the 
master  holds  the  wires,  and  the  scholar  is  never 
to  suspect  in  what  manner  they  aie  moved  " 
In  the  Thoughts  Godwin  has  clearly  made 
some  advance  in  educational  theory  While 
he  still  has  faith  in  the  great  educational  value 
of  the  classics,  he  advises  that  a  pupil  who  has 
no  ability  for  language  should  be  taken  away 
from  those  studies  More  respect  should  be 
shown  to  individuality;  the  capacities  of  a 
scholar  should  be  studied  and  his  career  and 
education  should  follow  accordingly.  An  ill- 
adapted  curriculum  is  frequently  at  fault 
rather  than  innate  stupidity,  for  "  nature  never 
made  a  dunce  ''  Godwin  is  thus  compelled 
to  recommend  a  wider  curriculum,  including 


119 


GOETHE 


GOLDSMITH 


14  the  rudiments  of  all  the  sciences  that  are  in 
ordinal y  use,"  than  he  had  done  in  the  En- 
quirer Tn  this  volume  there  is  also  an  attack 
on  phrenology  and  insistence  on  the  unity  of 
the  mind  The  author  discredits  the  view 
put  forward  by  the  phrenologists  that  an  indi- 
vidual is  endowed  with  special  abilities,  and 
shows  that  a  child  may  be  born  with  general 
ability  which  can  be  directed  to  special  ends 
(Godwin's  political  work  was  soon  forgotten,  and 
his  educational  writings,  though  full  of  sound 
common-sense  views  and  sympathy,  did  not 
exercise*  any  marked  influence 
References :  — 

J)i(tionnry  of  National  Biography 

HAZLITT,  W  The  Spirit  of  the  Age,  pp  27-54  (Lon- 
don, 1S25) 

RLUAN,  C  K  William  Godwin,  htx  Friends  and  Con- 
temporaries (London,  1876  ) 

STEPHEN,  SIK  LESLIE  Hours  in  a  Library,  Vol  III, 
pp  04  100  (London,  1892) 

GOETHE,  JOHANN  WOLFGANG  (1749- 
1832)  — Although  Goethe  has  not  formu- 
lated any  connected  system  of  education,  his 
works  contain  some  of  the  deepest  and  most 
fruitful  pedagogic  thoughts  His  interest  in 
education  was  early  aroused  through  the  woiks 
of  Hasedow  and  Rousseau,  in  Weimai  he  di- 
rected the  education  of  the  son  of  Frau  von 
Stem,  a  young  man  of  rather  mediocie  talents, 
whom  Schillei,  however,  pronounced  a  "  peda- 
gogic masterpiece",  and,  as  a  minister,  he 
exerted  a  great  influence  on  the  educational 
affairs  of  the  duchy  of  Weimar  Above  all, 
Goethe  studied  the  development  of  his  own 
mind,  striving  to  laise  himself  to  higher  and 
higher  levels  This  conscious  process  of  self- 
education,  coupled  with  the  poet's  profound  in- 
sight into  human  life,  invests  Goethe's  ideas  on 
education  with  a  great  interest  and  significance 
Goethe  realizes  the  necessity  of  education,  al- 
though he  believes  that  the  educatoi  cannot 
put  anything  into  the  mind  which  is  not  aheady 
there  by  nature  The  method  of  education 
must  be  self-activity,  education  must  be  posi- 
tive and  not  repressive,  education  through 
feai  is  the  worst  of  all 

The  object  of  education,  according  to  Goethe, 
is  the  development,  from  within,  of  all  the 
powers  of  the  human  mind,  so  as  to  produce  an 
harmonious  personality  which  will  be  active 
in  the  service  of  society  This  social  view  of 
education  finds  expression  in  the  description 
of  the  "  pedagogic  province  "  of  his  novel 
Wilheltn  M cistci '«  Wander jahrc  In  this  prov- 
ince, which  forms  a  small  state  in  itself,  and 
from  which  all  unpedagogic  influences  are  care- 
fully excluded,  boys  are  educated  in  common, 
each  for  that  kind  of  occupation  for  which  he 
seems  to  show  the  greatest  aptitude  Then- 
education  is  thoroughly  practical,  and  is  per- 
meated by  an  ethical  spirit  to  which  Goethe 
gives  the  name  of  "  reveience  "  Thiee  kinds 
of  reverence  aie  inculcated:  for  that  which  is 
above  us,  that  which  is  around  us,  and  that 


120 


which  is  beneath  us,  in  other  words,  for  God, 
Humanity,  arid  Nature  From  these  three 
reverences  springs  the  highest,  which  is  self- 
reverence  These  ethical  teachings  are  em- 
bodied in  appropriate  symbols  and  transmitted 
by  song  F.  M. 

References :  — 

LANUOUTH,  A      Goethe  alt,  Padayvg      (Halle,  1886  ) 
MUNZ,  B      Goethe  cdt>  Krzicher      (Leipzig,  1904  ) 
OLDENBLWJ,    A      Grundhnien    der    Padafjogik    Goethes. 

(Zittau,  1858  ) 
REIN'S    Encyklopadischct*     Handbuch,    sv     Goethe    a/« 

Padayoy 
SPALDING,  J   L      Opportunity  and  Other  Essays,  pp   142- 

189       (Chicago,  1900) 
VENABLE,  W  H      Let  Him  First  be  a  Man,  pp   195-212 

(Boston,  1894  ) 

GOLDEN  SECTION.  —  When  a  spacial 
figure  is  so  divided  that  it  obeys  the  formula 

the  longest  side  is  to  the  shortest  side  as  the 
sum  of  the  two  sides  is  to  the  longest  side, 
the  division  is  especially  pleasing  to  the  ob- 
server and  is  designated  the  golden  section 
This  formula  is  obeyed  by  oinamental  crosses, 
by  books  and  pictures,  to  such  an  extent  that  it 
is  evident  that  the  relation  is  common  and  nat- 
ural to  oven  untrained  individuals  The  ex- 
planation of  the  satisfactory  chaiactei  of  this 
division  is  not  easy  to  give  Such  a  division 
departs  from  absolute  symmetry  enough  to  give 
variety,  and  it  is  near  enough  to  symmetry  so 
that  neither  dimension  is  extiavagantly  different 
from  the  other  C  H  J. 

See  ESTHETICS 

Reference :  — 

FECHNER,  G  T      Zur  experimcntalen  Aesthetik      (Leip- 
zig, 1871  ) 

GOLDSMITH,     OLIVER     (1728-1774)  — 

The  English  poet  and  writer  has  left  among  his 
wiitmgs  some  excellent  descriptions  of  the  life 
of  an  assistant  01  usher  and  a  criticism  of  the 
education  of  his  day  As  a  boy  he  had  been 
moved  about  fiom  school  to  school  with  but 
little  intellectual  profit  from  any  of  them  It  is 
supposed  that  it  is  the  master  of  the  second 
school  which  he  attended,  Thomas  Byrne,  a 
retired  soldier,  who  is  the  prototype  of  the 
Village  Schoolmaster  in  the  Deserted  Village:  — 

"And  still  they  gazed  and  still  the  wonder  grew 
That  one  small  head  could  carry  all  he  knew  " 

As  a  student  he  was  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin, 
at  Edinburgh,  and  at  Louvam  For  a  time  he 
assisted  in  a  school  kept  by  his  brother,  served 
as  private  tutor  in  Ireland,  and  was  usher  at 
Pcckham  Academy,  so  that  his  account  of  the 
humiliating  position  of  the  usher  is  based  pos- 
sibly on  first-hand  experience  It  is  in  the  same 
essay  that  he  criticizes  the  declamatory  style 
of  educational  writings  and  asks  for  a  more 
scientific  manner  of  presentation  and  for 
44  didactic  simplicity  "  (loldsmith  attacks  the 
numerous  private  boai  ding  schools  of  the  period. 
"Is  any  man  unfit  for  any  of  the  professions, 


GOLDTHWAITE 


GOODRIOH 


he  finds  his  last  lesource  in  .setting  up  school," 
with  no  small  profit  to  himself  The  state 
should  interfere  and  at  least  "  cast  its  eye  to 
their  instructors,"  a  suggestion  which  still 
remains  to  be  put  into  effect  in  England 
Better  salaries  are  required  to  secure1  abler  men 
for  the  teaching  profession  The  public  schools 
are  superior  to  private  schools,  for  "  it  is  riot 
from  their  masters,  but  from  their  equals  youth 
learn  a  knowledge  of  the  world  "  Tempeiance 
and  frugality,  qualities  which  (ioldsrimh  had 
negatively  discovered  to  be  desirable,  should 
be  taught  m  school,  and  moial  tales  should  be 
introduced  (loldsmith  fuither  attacks  the 
teaching  of  rhetoric  and  elocution,  where  con- 
viction and  a  knowledge  of  the  subject  and 
language  are  of  greatei  value  He  was  also 
opposed  to  the  encyclopedic  curriculum  of  his 
day,  by  which  "  the  child  soon  becomes  a  talker 
in  all  and  a  master  in  none  "  Clearly  some- 
thing of  "  soft  pedagogy  "  was  already  creeping 
into  the  schools,  for  Goldsmith  mentions  the 
futility  of  teaching  language  through  textbooks 
with  text  on  one  side  and  literal  translation  on 
the  other  Further,  he  says,  "  attempting  to 
deceive  children  into  instruction  is  only 

deceiving  ourselves,  and  I  know  no  passion 
capable  of  conquering  a  child's  natural  laziness 
but  fear"  In  another  work  (Present  State  of 
Polite  Learning)  the  author  discusses  the  rel- 
ative merits  of  travel  and  study  in  college,  and 
decides  m  favor  of  the  lattei  for  the  young  man 
The  universities  lie  divides  into  three  groups 
those  which  retain  the  scholastic  tradition, — 
Prague,  Louvam,  and  Padua,  those  which  do 
not  prescribe  the  length  of  residence  for  a  degree 
nor  control  the  students,  —  Edmbuigh,  Gottin- 
gen,  Leyden,  Geneva,  and  those  which  have  a 
prescribed  period  of  study  and  some  control, — 
Oxford,  Cambudge,  and  Dublin  Dealing  with 
the  general  characteristics  of  the  universities 
he  controverts  the  belief  that  they  are  places 
to  advance  learning,  for  "  new  improvements  in 
learning  are  seldom  adopted  in  colleges  until 
admitted  everywhere  else  And  this  is  right, 
we  should  always  be  cautious  of  teaching  the 
rising  generation  uncertainties  foi  truth  "  And 
lastly  this  modern  touch  may  be  added, 
"  Learning  is  most  advanced  m  populous  cities, 
where  chance  often  conspires  with  industry  to 
promote  it  " 

References :  — 

BAKNARD,    H      American   Journal   of  Education,    Vol 

XIII,  pp   347-358 

BLACK,  W      Goldsmith      (London,  1883  ) 
DOBHON,  A      Life  of  Olive?  Goldsmith      (London,  1888  ) 
IRVING,  WASHINGTON      Oliver  Goklxmdh 

GOLDTHWAITE,  WILLIAM  C  (1816- 
1882).  —  Educational  author,  educated  m  the 
public  schools  of  Massachusetts  and  at  Amherst 
College  He  was  engaged  m  secondary  school 
work  in  Virginia  and  New  Jerscv  for  a  number 
of  vears  and  was  principal  of  the  academy  at 
Westfield,  Mass  ,  from  1844  to  1868  He  was 


one  of  the  founders  and  editors  of  the  A/Vz,s- 
bachusett*  Teacher,  and  the  aulhoi  of  geograph- 
ical textbooks  W  S  M. 

GOLIARDS  —  The  name  of  a  class  of  wan- 
dering students  of  the  middle  ages  They  were 
drawn  from  the  clerical  orders  and  consisted 
of  those  who  had  no  cure  or  office  The  term 
is  derived,  according  to  Wnght,  from  quid,  and 
refers  to  their  gluttonous  and  intemperate 
habits  They  wandered  from  univeisity  to 
univerMty  as  hangers-on  of  the  higher  clergy, 
01  fiom  one  couit  to  another,  and  led  a  riotous 
existence,  living  geneially  fiorn  hand  to  mouth 
The  bond  which  bound  those  who  adopted  this 
form  of  life  together  into  a  sort  of  fraternity 
was  adherence  to  a  mythical  patron,  Gohas  or 
Golias  the  Bishop,  refeired  to  also  as  primas 
and  archipoeta  In  his  name  and  m  his  honor 
were  perpetrated  all  the  vices  and  pleasures 
which  \\ere  incidental  to  a  tramp  life  To  him 
were  dedicated  all  the  songs  and  literature  which 
originated  with  this  class,  and  under  his  patron- 
age were  made  all  the  attacks  against-  ecclesi- 
astical authority  and  e\eiythmg  that  was  con- 
sidered sacred,  as,  foi  example,  the  Apocalypse 
(rolioe,  a  parody  on  the  Apocalypse  of  St.  John 
The  songs  have  been  collected  and  published 
under  the  title  of  Cannina  Burana  (q  v  ) 

See  BACCHANTS 

References :  — 

BARNARD.     American  Journal  of  Education,  Vol  V,  pp. 

6(M  f 
GIKSEBRECHT,  W       Die  Vagantcn  und  Gohardcn  und  ihre 

Liedcr      (Berlin,  1853  ) 
LAIHTNER,   L      GWms   Studtn1(nli«hr  dtt,   Mittclalters 

(Stuttgart,  1S7<) ) 

MONROE,  P      Thoma*  Plaitir      (Now  Yoik,  1904  ) 
SCHULZE,  F  ,  and  SSYMANK,  P      Dat>  drutsihe  Studcnten- 

turn  von  denaltesten  Ztttcn  bis  zur  Gtyinwart     (Leip- 
zig, 1910  ) 
SYMONDS,  J   A      Wmet  Women,  and  tiong      (Portland, 

Mo  ,  1HG9  ) 
WRKJHT,  T     Latin  Poems  commonly  attributed  to  Walter 

Mapes     (London,  1841  ) 

GONZAGA  COLLEGE,  SPOKANE,  WASH. 

—  Sec  JP:SUS,  SOCIETY  OF  EDUCATIONAL  WORK 
OF 

GONZAGA    COLLEGE,    WASHINGTON, 

DC  —  See  JESUS,  SOCIETY  OF  EDUCATIONAL 
WORK  OF 

GOODNOW,  ISAAC  T  (1814-1891)  •— 
A  pioneer  of  the  common-school  movement  in 
Kansas ,  was  educated  at  the  Wesleyan  academy 
at  Wilbraham,  Mass  ,  and  was  engaged  m  second- 
ary school  work  first  in  Massachusetts,  Maine, 
and  Rhode  Island,  and  later  in  Kansas.  He 
was  president  of  Bluemont  College  from  1856  to 
1863  and  state  superintendent  of  Kansas  from 
J863  to  1807  W.  S.  M. 

GOODRICH,  CHAUNCEY  ALLEN  (1790- 
1800)  —  Lexicographei ;  graduated  from  Yale 
College  in  1810  lie  was  tutor  at  Yale  from 
1S12  to  1814  and  professor  from  1817  to  1839. 


121 


GOODRICH,   SAMUEL  GRISWOLD 


GOTHA 


He  was  the  authoi  of  seveial  Greek  and  Latin 
textbooks,  edited  the  Qnartcili/  Sfwtutoi,  and 
brought  out,  numerous  revised  editions  of  the 
dictionary  of  his  father-in-law,  Noah  Webster 
(q.v.).  W.  S.M. 

GOODRICH,  SAMUEL  GRISWOLD  (1793- 
1860)  -—  Author  of  the  Peter  Parley  books, 
published  eighty-four  textbooks  and  reading 
books  for  children  His  textbooks  include, 
besides  readers  and  primers,  histories,  geog- 
raphies, spelling  books,  and  science  books 

W.  S.  M. 

GORDON,  ROBERT  (1668- 1731)  —Founder 
of  Robert  Gordon's  College,  an  institution  for 
the  education  of  boys  in  Aberdeen,  Scotland; 
was  born  in  1668  and  died  m  1731  For  many 
years  he  carried  on  business  as  a  merchant  in 
Dantzig  and  amassed  considerable  wealth. 
On  his  death,  he  let!  his  fortune  in  trust  to  the 
magistrates  and  ministers  of  Aberdeen  for  "  the 
building  of  an  Hospital  and  for  the  maintenance 
and  education  of  boys  whose  parents  are  poor 
and  indigent  and  not  able  to  maintain  them  at 
school,  and  to  put  them  to  trades  and  employ- 
ments "  The  erection  of  the  Hospital  build- 
ings was  begun  soon  after  the  testator's  death, 
but  it  was  not  until  1750  that  the  school  was 
formally  opened  with  fourteen  boys,  under  the 
mastership  of  a  Robert  Abercrombie,  minister 
at  Fortdee  From  its  foundation  down  to  1881, 
the  institution  was  conducted  on  the  basis  of  the 
original  foundation  as  a  hospital  or  boarding 
school  for  the  sons  of  indigent  burgesses  In 
the  latter  year,  acting  under  powers  conferred 
by  the  Endowed  Institutions  (Scotland  Act), 
it  was  agreed  to  convert  the  Hospital  School 
into  a  college  or  day  school  in  which  the  chief 
subjects  of  instruction  should  be  the  English 
language  and  literature,  history  and  geography, 
modern  languages,  mathematics,  and  the  ele- 
ments of  physical  and  natural  science.  Pro- 
vision was  also  made  for  the  establishment  of 
evening  classes  for  youths  and  adults  The  in- 
stitution was  hereafter  designated  as  "  Robert 
Gordon's  College  in  Aberdeen  "  Quite  recently, 
in  1910,  the  Constitution  of  the  College  has 
again  been  changed,  and,  in  the  future,  Robert 
Gordon's  College  will  become  an  integral  part 
of  the  Aberdeen  and  North  of  Scotland  Techni- 
cal College,  an  institution  designed  to  provide 
higher  technical  education  for  the  North  of 
Scotland,  similar  to  that  provided  in  the  Glas- 
gow and  West  of  Scotland  Technical  College 
and  m  the  Edinburgh  Heriot-Watt  Technical 
College  A  D. 

Reference :  — 

ANDEHHON,    ROBERT      The   History   of  Robert   Gordon 
Hospital  (1729-1881).     (Aberdeen,  1896.) 


GORDON  COMPREHENSIVE  METHOD 

—  See  READING 


GORDY,  J  P  (1851-1908)  —Educational 
writer  and  professor,  educated  in  the  western 
University  of  Pennsylvania  arid  the  University 
of  Leipzig  He  was  professor  of  the  history  of 
education  in  the  Ohio  State  University  (1886- 
1900)  and  New  York  University  (1901-1908) 
Author  of  Growth  and  Development  of  the 
Normal  School  Idea  in  the  United  States; 
Education  in  the  Elementary  School;  and  Text- 
booh  on  Psychology  W  S  M 

GORHAM,  JOHN  (1793-1829)  —  Author 
of  textbooks  m  chemistry  and  physics;  was  edu- 
cated at  Harvard  College  and  the  University 
of  Edinburgh  and  was  professor  at  Harvard. 

W  S  M. 

GOTHA,  SCHOOL  REFORM  IN    —  The 

small  state  of  Saxe-Gotha,  situated  almost  in  the 
center  of  Germany,  holds  a  position  in  the  his- 
tory of  education  which  is  almost  unique  The 
earliest  record  of  a  school  in  the  duchy  is  in 
1299  when  reference  is  made  to  a  school  in  con- 
nection with  the  church  in  the  town  of  Gotha 
In  1327  two  schools  are  mentioned,  and  a  few 
years  later  a  school  of  girls  is  referred  to  Con- 
siderable activity  was  shown  during  the  peiiod 
of  the  Reformation  Myconms,  a  friend  of 
Luther,  became  pastor  and  superintendent  in 
Gotha  m  1524  Influenced  by  Luther's  Letters 
to  Councilors  and  the  Letters  to  Pastors,  My- 
conms attempted  to  introduce  some  form  of 
elementary  education  The  elements  of  a  sys- 
tem arc  found  in  the  instruction  in  reading 
which  the  pastors  and  sextons  were  ordered  to 
give  on  Sundays  This  lasted  until  the  Thirty 
Years'  War,  when  the  small  duchy  was  reduced 
to  poverty  and  chaos  like  so  many  of  her  neigh- 
bors But  from  this  state  of  depression  Gotha 
was  raised  through  the  efforts  of  a  ruler  whose 
interest  m  the  welfare  and  education  of  his 
people  placed  him  in  the  forefront  With  a 
firm  belief  in  education  imbibed  from  his  mother, 
Dorothea  Maria,  pupil  and  patron  of  Ratkc 
(qv\  Duke  Ernest  the  Pious  recognized  that 
this  was  the  only  means  for  the  regeneration  of 
his  country  Already  in  1640  he  ordered  a 
school  and  church  visitation  to  gather  informa- 
tion as  a  basis  for  further  action  He  himself 
made  some  visits  personally  For  the  reform 
of  schools  and  the  establishment  of  a  system 
of  education  he  summoned  to  his  aid  Andreas 
Reyher  (q  v  )  who  had  been  a  member  of  the 
philosophical  faculty  at  Leipzig,  rector  of  a 
gymnasium,  and  author  of  several  school  texts 
Reyher  was  appointed  rector  of  the  gymnasium 
at  Gotha  in  1640  lie  was  abreast  of  the  best 
educational  thought  of  his  day,  and  was  ac- 
quainted with  the  work  of  Alsted,  Ratke.  and 
Comemus  (q  v.)  The  Duke  commissioned  him 
to  draw  up  a  Methodus  docendi  primarily  for 
lower  forms  of  the  gymnasium,  but  useful  also 
for  other  schools  of  the  state  The  result  was 
the  Schulmethodus  (School  Method  or  Special 
and  particular  report,  stating  how,  under  the 


122 


GOTHA 


GOTHENBURG 


protection  of  the  Lord,  the  boys  and  girls  of 
villages ,  and  the  children  belonging  to  the  lower 
class  of  the  population  of  towns,  of  this  princi- 
pality of  Gotha  can  and  shall  be  plainly  and  suc- 
cessfully taught.  Written  by  the  order  of  his 
Grace  the  Prince  and  printed  in  Gotha  by  Peter 
Schmieden  in  the  year  1642)  This  work,  which 
was  carefully  revised  by  the  Duke,  appeared 
in  1642  and  again  in  1648,  1658,  1662,  and  1672 
Attendance  at  school  was  made  compulsory 
on  pain  of  a  hue  not  only  for  absence  but  for 
tardiness  The  teachers  were  ordered  to  be 
humane,  and  to  avoid  abuse  and  seventy  A 
fully  prescribed  time-table  was  issued  The 
chief  stress  was  laid  on  religious  instruction,  and 
the  teachers  were  to  avoid  mere  memory  drill 
Writing,  spelling,  reading,  and  arithmetic  be- 
came regular  subjects  for  the  elementary  school 
The  most  remarkable  addition  was  the  study  of 
natural  and  other  useful  sciences,  including 
mensuration  and  surveying  for  boys,  natural 
phenomena,  geography,  zoology,  information 
was  to  be  given  on  all  natural  objects  in 
the  neighborhood  "  Everything  that  can  be 
shown  to  children  should  be  shown  "  The 
oldest  children  were  to  be  taught  civics,  some- 
thing, about  the  government  of  the  state  and 
the  importance  of  education.  An  annual  ex- 
amination was  to  be  held  at  which  the  super- 
intendent was  to  examine  the  records  of  the 
previous  year  and  compare  with  the  progress 
made  at  the  time  of  the  examination 

Twenty  model  schools  were  established,  new 
inspectors  were  appointed,  better  teachers  were 
secured,  textbooks  were  written  and  distrib- 
uted gratis  to  school  children  Among  the 
textbooks  which  were  written  by  Reyher  may 
be  mentioned  the  Deutsch  ABC-  und  Syllaben- 
buchlein  fur  die  Kinder  tm  Furstenthumb  Gotha 
( The  German  Hornbook  and  Speller  for  Children 
in  the  Principality  of  Gotha)  1641,  Teutsche 
Lesebuchlein  (German  Header)  1642;  Arithme- 
tics, and  in  1  ().">()  the  Kuitzer  Unterncht  (Short 
Instruction  in  natmal  objects,  ui  some  useful 
sciences,  in  ecclesiastical  and  secular  institutions 
of  the  country  and  in  som,e  domestic  rescripts) 
For  the  training  of  children  in  manners  a  Short 
instruction  on  the  behavior  of  children  was  pub- 
lished in  1654  on  conduct  of  children  on  rising, 
dressing,  at  meals,  at  school  and  church,  at 
play,  and  among  strangers  The  teachers  were 
advised  to  study  by  themselves  or  with  pastors 
and  inspectors  Their  salaries  were  raised, 
a  sick  fund  was  established,  and  some  provision 
was  made  for  the  maintenance  of  teachers' 
widows  and  orphans  Although  he  realized 
the  importance  of  training  teachers,  Duke  Ernest 
could  only  charge  his  successors  with  the  duty, 
since  his  own  means  would  not  permit  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  system  in  his  own  day 

But  reforms  were  not  confined  to  the  ele- 
mentary schools  alone  Under  Reyher  the 
gymnasium  at  Gotha  gained  a  great  reputation, 
and  pupils  were  drawn  from  the  noble  classes 
from  all  parts  of  Europe  The  number  of 


classes  was  increased,  and  special  attention 
was  paid  to  the  preparation  of  the  older  schol- 
ars for  the  university.  The  Duke  frequently 
visited  the  school  and  took  a  special  interest  in 
the  conduct  of  the  pupils  Many  of  these 
proceeded  to  Jena,  but,  while  the  influence  of 
the  Duke  was  limited  in  this  university,  he 
issued  a  regulation  in  1657  for  those  of  his  own 
subjects  who  attended  there,  dealing  with  the 
aim  of  studies,  the  means  to  tins  end,  and  the 
distribution  of  time  For  the  education  of  his 
own  children,  of  whom  he  had  eighteen,  he  drew 
up  a  rigorous  regulation  dealing  with  eveiy 
hour  of  the  day 

But  such  a  system  could  only  last  so  long  as 
he  who  inspired  it  lived  The  "  Prince  among 
educators  and  educator  among  Princes  "  died 
in  1675  and  had  already  been  preceded  by  his 
able  assistant,  Reyher,  in  1673  Fiom  that 
date  until  the  middle  of  the  last  century  the 
educational  history  of  Gotha  is  one  of  con- 
tinued decline,  due  in  some  measure  to  the  fact 
that  the  duchy  was  divided  among  the  sons 
of  Duke  Ernest,  and  largely  to  the  extnn  a- 
gance  of  the  petty  rulers  who  spent  the  coun- 
try's wealth  in  cheap  imitations  of  the  Court  of 
Versailles  The  decline  was  arrested  for  a  brief 
period  under  Ernest  the  Wise  ( 1772-1S04),  who, 
assisted  by  Haun,  inaugurated  a  reform  of  the 
decayed  schools  of  the  state,  teacheis  were 
trained,  schools  were  inspected,  luush  discipline 
was  stopped,  the  appointment  of  old  servants 
to  schools  was  checked,  better  methods  of  teach- 
ing were  introduced  by  the  issue  in  ISO  I  by 
Ilaun  of  The  common  school  method u?  or  prac- 
tical instruction  for  inspectors  and  teacher*  of 
every  kind  of  elemental  ij  schools,  also  for  pnvate 
teachers,  illustrated  by  correct  tables  constructed 
by  J.  E.  Christian  Haun  But  the  party  of 
reaction  again  seized  control  on  the  death  of 
Duke  Ernest  the  Wise,  and  a  real  and  lasting 
reform  was  not  introduced  until  1863,  on  the 
basis  of  which  a  system  has  been  evolved  which 
places  the  small  duchy  of  Gotha  among  the 
leaders  in  the  German  educational  system  See 
ERNEST  1,  THE  PIOLS;  ERNEST  II 

References :  — 

BARNARD,  H  American  Journal  of  Education,  Vol  XX. 

p  572 

SCRMID,  K    A  Oeschichtc  der  Erziehung,  Vol    IV,  Pt.  1, 

pp    1-74.  (Stuttgart,   1884-1902) 

GOTHENBURG,  UNIVERSITY  OF,  SWE- 
DEN —  An  institution  founded  in  1SS7  and 
opened  in  1891  as  a  result  of  municipal  aid  and 
private  beneficence  Lectures  and  courses  had 
been  organized  in  the  town  since  1841  under 
the  auspices  of  the  Royal  Society  for  Science 
and  Literature,  and  these  had  been  subsidized 
by  the  municipal  authorities  since  1874  The 
university  at  present  has  only  the  faculty  of 
arts  Although  it  is  not  a  state  university, 
the  professors  at  Gothenburg  must  be  approved 
on  appointment  bv  the  King,  and  since  1909, 
when  the  institution  received  permission  to 


123 


GOTTINGEN 


GOUCHKR   COLLEGE 


conduct  certain  examinations,  it  has  been 
placed  under  the  authority  of  the  Chancellor 
of  the  State  Universities  In  1910  there  was 
an  enrollment  of  166  matriculated  students  and 
41  auditors 

Reference :  — 

Minerva,  Handbuch  der  gelehrten  Welt,  Vol  I      (Strass- 
burg,  1911.) 

GOTTINGEN,  THE  ROYAL  GEORGE 
AUGUSTUS  UNIVERSITY  OF  —Founded  bv 
King  George  II  of  England,  in  his  capacity 
as  Elector  of  Hanover,  the  opening  of  the  in- 
stitution being  celebrated  with  great  ceremony 
m  1737,  although  instruction  had  actually  be- 
gun three  years  prior  to  this  date  The  uni- 
versity forged  to  the  front  rapidly,  and  is  to 
this  day  one  of  the  most  renowned  of  the  (Jer- 
man  institutions  of  higher  learning,  having 
attracted  a  large  number  of  English  and  Ameri- 
can students,  among  the  latter  being  Emerson, 
Longfellow,  Bancroft,  and  Motley  Benjamin 
Franklin  paid  a  visit  to  the  university  as  early 
as  1766,  and  was  made  a  member  of  the  Rovai 
Society  of  Science 

The  university  in  its  beginnings  differed 
from  those  established  during  the  second  half 
of  the  sixteenth  and  during  the  seventeenth 
century  in  that  the  theological  (Protestant) 
faculty  was  not  emphasized  to  the  detriment 
of  the  others,  the  healthy  early  development 
of  the  institution  being  attributable  in  large 
measure  to  the  excellent  administration  of  the 
Hanoverian  minister,  Von  Munchhausen  (until 
1771)  During  the  years  of  stoim  and  stress 
at  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century, 
Gottmgen  was  included  for  six  years  in  the 
Kingdom  of  Westphalia,  but  after  the  War  of 
Liberation  it  was  reunited  to  Hanovei,  which 
had  been  raised  to  the  rank  of  a  kingdom  A 
new  era  of  prosperity  was  now  ushered  in, 
which  unfortunately  received  a  severe  setback 
as  a  result  of  the  dismissal  in  1837  of  seven  of 
the  most  celebrated  teachers  of  the  university 
who  had  opposed  the  government  in  the  con- 
stitutional conflict,  the  number  including 
Jakob  and  Wilhclm  Grimm  and  the  historians 
Dahlmann  and  Gervinus  In  1866  Gottmgen 
became  a  Prussian  institution,  but  its  loss  of 
independence  —  it  had  been  the  sole  Hano- 
verian university  —  was  by  no  means  accom- 
panied by  a  decline  in  efficiency,  as  the  Prussian 
Ministry  has  always  evinced  a  warm  interest 
in  the  institution,  which  has  been  manifested 
in  recent  years  by  the  erection  of  a  number  of 
splendid  medical  institutes 

The  faculty  of  philosophy  is  by  far  the 
largest  branch  of  the  university,  and  includes 
the  oldest  philological  seminar  in  Germany,  as 
well  as  a  picture  gallery  and  a  collection  of 
engravings  as  adjuncts  of  the  work  in  the  his- 
tory of  art  The  anatomical  institute  contains 
Blurnenbach's  famous  collection  of  skulls 
Considerable  emphasis  has  been  and  is  still 
laid  at  Gdttmgen  upon  the  subject  of  mathe- 


124 


matics,  while  the  departments  of  physics  and 
physical  chemistry  are  also  widely  known 
The  university  library,  an  important  collection 
from  the  very  first,  contains  over  550,000 
volumes  and  almost  7000  manuscripts,  it  being 
the  largest  university  library  m  Germany. 
The  university  also  contains  a  riding  academy 
and  a  swimming  pool  A  German  institute  for 
foreign  students,  the  Bottmger  Studienhaus, 
established  by  an  Elberfeld  merchant  in  1909, 
was  transferred  to  the  university  of  Berlin  (1911) 
The  annual  budget  of  the  university  amounts 
to  about  $400,000  The  town  is  also  the  head- 
quarters of  a  famous  "Royal  Society  of  Science 
(Gc*ell*chaft  der  WisscnKrhaften—  1751,  1893), 
and  contains  a  professional  school  for  Feinme- 
chanik 

In  addition  to  the  scholars  referred  to  above, 
mention  may  be  made  of  Albrecht  von  Haller 
in  science,  Heyne  in  philology,  Wilhelm  Weber 
in  physics,  Wohler  m  chemistry,  Gauss  in 
mathematics,  Curtius,  Waitz,  arid  Roscher  in 
history,  Jhermg  and  Planck  in  jurisprudence, 
and  more  recently  Montz  Heyrie  in  Germanic 
philology  llemnch  Heine  was  a  student  at 
Gottmgen  from  1820  to  1821,  Bismarck  from 
1832  to  1833 

During  the  winter  semester  of  1909-1910 
Gottmgen  ranked  seventh  in  point  of  attend- 
ance among  the  German  universities,  enrolling 
2342  students  (217  women),  of  whom  112  (57 
women)  were  auditors  As  at  a  number  of 
other  German  uruveisitics,  there  are  more 
students  (1419)  enrolled  in  the  faculty  of 
philosophy  than  in  all  of  the  others  combined, 
including  the  great  majority  of  matriculated 
women  The  law  faculty,  which  enjoys  a  high 
reputation,  also  has  a  large  attendance  (432), 
the  school  of  medicine  attracting  262  students 
and  that  of  theology  117  In  the  winter 
semester  of  1910  there  weie  2233  students  m 
attendance  R  T  ,  Jr. 

References :  — 

Chronik  der  Gt'org-Auguatw-Unwcrsitttt  fur  1889-1890 

Mil  Ruckbhcken  auffruhere  Jahrzehntf     (Gottmgen, 

1SCH)  )     Continued  annually 
Minerva,  Handbuch  der  geluhrtin  Welt,  Vol    I       (Strass- 

burg,  1911) 
PUTTER,  J  ST      Versuch  euier  akademiSLhen   (JeUhrtcn- 

Geschichte   von    der    G  cor  g- August  us- Universittit    zu 

Gottmgen      (GottmRcn,  1705-1838) 
ROSSLER,  E  F      Die  Grdndungder  Unwersitdt  Gottmgen 

(Gottmgen,  1855 ) 

GOUCHER  COLLEGE,  BALTIMORE,  MD. 

—  An  institution  for  the  higher  education  of 
women,  founded  in  1X84  by  the  Baltimore 
Conference  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church 
as  the  Woman's  College  of  Baltimore  The 
college  was  opened  in  1888  The  present  name 
was  adopted  in  1910  The  entrance  require- 
ments are  fifteen  units  of  high  school  work, 
and  the  A  B  degree  is  conferred  at  the  end  of 
a  four-years  course,  consisting  of  certain  re- 
quired and  elective  subjects,  with  a  major  in 
one  department.  In  cooperation  with  Johns 


GOUGE 


GRADE  MEETINGS 


Hopkins  University  a  College  Course  for 
Teachers  is  conducted  by  the  faculties  of  both 
institutions,  women  students  satisfying  the 
requirements  of  these  courses  are  admitted  to 
the  A  B.  degree  of  Goucher  College  The 
number  of  students  enrolled  in  1909-1910  was 
367.  There  were  thirty-three  members  on  the 
instructing  staff 

GOUGE,  THOMAS  (1609-1681)  —  Dis- 
senting minister  and  philanthropist,  educated 
at  Eton  and  Cambridge  Until  the  Uniformity 
Act  of  1662  he  held  a  living  in  London,  in 
which  he  conducted  catechetical  classes  and 
employed  the  poor  in  spinning  flax  and  hemp, 
a  type  of  poor  relief  taken  up  on  a  wide  scale 
by  Ins  friend  Firmin  (q  v  )  Gouge's  most 
important  work,  however,  was  the  evangeli- 
zation of  Wales,  which  he  undertook  in  1672 
He  established  schools,  and  employed  teachers 
to  give  instruction  in  English  and  the  catechism 
Ultimately  about  three  hundred  schools  were 
established  In  addition  he  also  distributed, 
mainly  at  his  own  expense,  religious  literature 
In  1674  a  trust  for  this  purpose  was  estab- 
lished, including  eminent  churchmen  and  dis- 
sen^ers,  and  the  Bible,  Book  of  Common 
Prayer,  Church  Catechism,  and  other  woiks 
were  made  accessible  to  the  Welsh  either 
through  free  distribution  01  at  a  very  low 
price  So  far  as  Gouge's  schools  are  concerned, 
it  would  seem  from  Strype's  evidence  that 
they  continued  aftei  his  death  until  the 
Society  for  the  Promotion  of  Christian  Knowl- 
edge (q  v )  became  active  in  Wales  (1730) 
Gouge,  piobably  through  the  influence  of 
Firmin,  a  governor  of  the  institution,  also 
devoted  himself  to  catechizing  the  scholars  of 
Christ's  Hospital 

See  CHARITY  SCHOOLS 

References  •  — 

Dictionary  of  \ational  Biography 

MUNTMOHLNC  v,  .1    E   G   dr      State  Intervention  in  Eng- 
lish Education       (Cambridge,  1902) 

GOULD,  BENJAMIN  APTHORP  (1787- 
1859)  —  The  author  of  a  series  of  Latin  text- 
books, was  educated  at  Harvard  and  was 
headinastei  of  the  Boston  Latin  School  from 
1814  to  1829  W  8  M 

GOVERNMENT  AID  —  See  ENGLAND, 
EDUCATION  IN;  NATIONAL  GOVERNMENT  AND 
EDUCATION 

GOVERNMENT  OF  CHILDREN  —See 
REWARDS  AND  PUNISHMENTS;  SCHOOL  MANAGE- 
MENT. 

GOVERNMENT,  SCHOOL  —  See  SCHOOL 
MANAGEMENT 

GOVERNMENT,   SELF,  IN  SCHOOL.— 

See    SELF-GOVERNMENT    OF   PUPILS;     SCHOOL 

MANAGEMENT. 


GOVERNMENTAL  PUBLICATIONS  ON 
EDUCATION.  —  See  OFFICIAL  PUHLICVTIONS, 
and  articles  on  National  Systems  of  Education 

GOVERNORS,  BOARDS  OF  —See  HOARDS 
OF  CONTROL 

GOWNS  —  See  ACADEMIC  COSTUME 

GRACE  —  A  term  which  originally  meant  a 
dispensation  granted  by  a  university  or  some 
faculty  in  it  from  the  "  elaborate  and  compli- 
cated regulations  "  required  fiom  candidates 
for  degrees  In  the  early  period  few  candi- 
dates required  "  graces,"  but  by  the  fifteenth 
century  the  "  grace  "  was  asked  for  as  a  icgu- 
lar  practice  At  Oxford  it  was  granted  by  the 
Congregation  of  Regents  Conditions  were 
frequently  imposed  on  the  gi  anting  of  graces 
involving  the  performance  of  some  action  or  a 
contribution  for  some  purpose,  charitable  or 
otherwise  Later  a  grace  came  to  mean  anv 
decree  of  a  university  which  involved  a  dispen- 
sation from  statutory  requirements  The  term 
is  still  used  in  this  sense  of  decrees  of  the 
Senate  at  Cambridge  A  further  use  of  the 
word  is  with  reference  to  the  permission  given 
by  a  college  or  hall  for  one  of  its  members  to 
take  a  degree 

References :  — 

RASHDALL,   II       Universities   of  Europe  in  the  Middle 

Agt*       (Oxford,   1895) 
WELLH,    J       The    Oxford    Degree    Ceremony      (Oxford, 

1U06) 

GRACELAND  COLLEGE,  LAMONI,  IA  — 

A  coeducational  institution  opened  in  1S95 
under  the  auspices  of  the  Reorganized  Church 
of  Jesus  Christ  of  Latter  Day  Saints  Prepuia- 
tory,  collegiate,  normal,  commercial,  music,  and 
oratory  departments  are  maintained  An  in- 
dustrial department  is  provided  to  enable 
students  to  defray  part  of  their  expenses 
The  entrance  requirements  are  equivalent  to 
twelve  units  of  high  school  work  The  degrees 
of  A  B  and  B  S  are  confericd  on  completion 
of  the  requnements  There  is  a  faculty  of  thir- 
teen members 

GRADATION,  GRADES,  GRADED 
SCHOOLS.  —  See  GRADING  AND  PROMOTION 

GRADE  GROUP  PLAN  —See  GRADING 
AND  PROMOTION 

GRADE  MEETINGS  —  Teachers  in  service 
are  given  instruction  through  teachers'  meet- 
ings variously  composed  When  the  basis  of 
determining  the  attendance  is  the  grade  or 
grades  taught  by  the  teachers,  the  name 
"  grade  meeting  "  is  applied  Thus,  there  are 
first  grade  meetings,  third  and  fourth  grade 
meetings,  or  grammar  grade  meetings.  H  S 

See  SUPERVISION  OF  TEACHING;  TEACHERS  IN 
SERVICE,  TRAINING  OF. 


125 


GRADING   AND  PROMOTION 


GRADING   AND  PROMOTION 


GRADING      AND      PROMOTION  —As 

school  systems  become  organized,  the  neces- 
sity of  teaching  children  in  groups  composed 
of  those  of  substantially  equal  attainments 
produces  the  graded  system  or  graded  school 
An  ideal  system  of  grades  presupposes  that 
all  the  children  in  a  given  group  shall  be  about 
the  same  age  and  of  equal  capacity  for  school 
work  A  system  of  grading  or  classification  or 
grouping  by  classes  begins  with  the  entrance 
into  school  of  a  large  number  of  children  not 
yet  trained  in  school  subjects  Those  who 
advance  regularly  through  a  course  of  study 
have  their  progress  marked  at  certain  intervals 
by  promotion,  which  is  essentially  a  stage  when 
reclassification  seems  desirable  Naturally  the 
course  of  study  is  the  foundation  of  grading 
This  program  of  work  and  of  standards  to  be 
reached  indicates  divisions  appropriate  to  each 
year  or  other  interval  The  course  of  study 
may  be  so  framed  at  any  given  stage  as  to  be 
capable  of  mastery  by  a  large  or  small  propor- 
tion of  the  children  It  may  lay  stress  on 
formal  elements  of  subjects  in  which  special 
details  may  be  placed  at  a  premium,  thus 
resulting  in  the  failure  of  a  considerable  num- 
ber of  ungifted  children 

At  any  stage  the  object  of  a  system  of  grad- 
ing is  to  produce  groups  or  classes  that  are 
fairly  homogeneous  as  regards  attainments  at 
the  moment,  and  also  capacity  to  make  a  cer- 
tain rate  of  progress  throughout  the  course  of 
study  as  organized  Grading  and  promotion 
thus  come  to  be  focusing  points  of  a  variety 
of  problems  growing  out  of  the  teaching  of 
children  in  groups  Mechanization  of  school 
work  first  expresses  itself  in  an  inflexibility  of 
grading  and  in  a  rigidity  of  promotion  from 
one  stage  to  another  in  the  course  of  study 

The  first  fact  to  be  noted  is  that  the  homo- 
geneousness  of  any  group  of  children  can  be 
approximate  only  Children  of  the  same  age 
not  only  differ  among  themselves  as  regards 
attainments  in  general,  but  also  vary  largely 
according  to  the  particular  type  of  attainment 
considered,  for  example,  of  two  children  A 
may  be  inferior  to  B  in  arithmetic,  but  superior 
to  B  in  music  Furthermore,  children  of  sub- 
stantially equal  attainments  at  a  given  time 
may  differ  considerably  as  regards  their  rate 
of  learning  the  subject  matter  The  rate 
commonly  employed  in  practice  is  that  which 
has  been  determined  by  experience  as  one 
suitable  to  a  majority  of  normal  children 
Manifestly  such  a  rate  must  fail  to  take  account 
of  individuals  who  differ  considerably  from  the 
normal  In  general,  consideration  of  the 
individual  pupil  tends  to  produce  criticism  of 
the  graded  system,  because  in  any  such  sys- 
tem it  will  be  found  that  not  only  are  numerous 
individuals  quite  unsuited  to  its  requirements, 
but  that  every  individual  at  some  point  loses 
in  opportunities  because  of  the  system  em- 
ployed. On  the  other  hand  it  must  be  recog- 
nized that  a  system  of  grading  is  a  necessary 


126 


of  economy  wherever  children  must 
be  dealt  with  in  large  numbers 

Starting  with  the  assumption  that  some 
system  of  grading  is  necessary  and  that  the 
end  of  a  system  of  grading  is  to  produce 
groups  so  homogeneous  as  to  make  the  maxi- 
mum progress  of  all  the  individuals  composing 
the  group  possible,  the  various  attempts  to 
modify  the  effects  of  its  too  great  mechaniza- 
tion may  be  discussed  If,  from  a  large  num- 
ber of  children,  there  be  removed  the  com- 
paratively small  number  of  individuals  who 
vaiy  greatly  from  the  normal,  there  is  a  system 
of  grading  and  promotion  supplemented  by  the 
existence  of  special  classes  (q  v  ),  into  which 
might  be  put  those  who  by  reason  of  excessive 
age  are  ill  adapted  to  given  grades,  or  those 
who,  having  deficient  sense  organs  or  being 
weak  mentally,  are  manifestly  incapable  of 
keeping  pace  with  any  group  of  normal  chil- 
dren This  removes  from  the  grades  the 
strongly  marked  variant  cases,  and  gives  the 
teacher  opportunity  to  devote  her  efforts  to  a 
class  more  nearly  homogeneous  Similarly 
such  pupils  as  may  retard  the  work  of  a  class 
through  increasing  the  difficulties  of  discipline 
may  be  put  into  special  disciplinary  classes  (q  v  ) 

Even  among  fairly  normal  children  it  is 
found  that  not  all  can  make  the  same  rate  of 
progress  Where  a  pupil  is  so  obviously  unable 
to  maintain  progiess  in  his  grade,  without 
being  in  any  sense  defective,  he  may  be  trans- 
ferred to  a  grade  lower  than  his  own  (See 
DEMOTION  )  A  system  of  grading  has  been 
devised  whereby  groups  shall  proceed,  as  it 
were,  along  paiallel  lines  This  is  sometimes 
known  as  the  Cambridge  system,  and  may  be 
so  systematized  that  a  given  course  of  study 
shall  be  completed  in  respectively  seven,  eight, 
or  nine  years,  so  fai  as  given  individuals  are 
concerned  Fully  carried  out,  this  system  not 
only  provides  for  pupils  who  are  persistently 
unequal  in  their  ability  to  make  progress,  but 
also  for  those  who  at  one  stage  of  their  school 
career  may  proceed  rapidly  and  at  another 
slowly  In  large  schools  it  is  possible  to  still 
further  extend  the  principle  involved  in  the 
Cambridge  system.  Under  close  oversight  of 
principal  and  teacher,  pupils  may  be  formed 
into  groups  as  nearly  homogeneous  as  possible, 
and  the  rate  of  progress  may  then  be  deter- 
mined without  reference  to  any  fixed  program, 
but  with  reference  solely  to  the  capacity  of  the 
group  The  system  has  been  made  so  elastic 
that  individuals  may  be  frequently  shifted 
from  one  group  to  the  other,  according  as  they 
manifest  capacity  to  proceed  more  rapidly  or 
to  require  more  time.  This  is  sometimes 
referred  to  as  the  group  system,  and  provides 
the  maximum  degree  of  elasticity  in  this 
direction.  In  a  few  instances  it  has  been 
carried  so  far  as  to  allow  for  a  measurable 
shifting  of  pupils  from  group  to  group  accord- 
ing as  different  subjects  are  being  taken,  but 
this  requires  extremely  close  supervision,  and  is 


GRADING  AND   PROMOTION 


GRADING   AND  PROMOTION 


possible  only  in  a  school  of  very  large  size 
Such  classification  or  grading  pupils  by  sub- 
jects is  an  arrangement  which  is  more  possible 
in  schools  with  the  departmental  system  (q  v  ) 
than  in  others  Not  only  is  such  a  system  an 
element  in  flexible  grading,  but  in  the  later 
years  it  makes  articulation  with  the  high  school 
possible 

Flexibility  of  grading  is  sometimes  attained 
by  varying  the  demands  made  upon  pupils  for 
amount  of  acquisition  in  any  given  grade 
This  takes  several  forms  The  class  may  be 
carried  over  a  given  section  of  the  course  of 
study  at  such  a  rate  as  to  allow  the  more 
capable  pupils  to  meet  all  the  requirements, 
but  the  less  capable  to  require  a  review  The 
first  group  may  then  be  promoted,  or,  more 
commonly,  may  take  additional  work  in  the 
ground  covered,  while  those  less  capable  are 
acquiring  necessary  proficiency  in  the  essential 
subjects  A  more  extended  form  is  found 
where  two  groups  of  pupils  are  carried  along 
side  by  side,  the  one  containing  the  more 
capable,  the  other  the  less,  the  latter  being 
required  to  take  only  the  minimum  amount  of 
work  and  to  reach  the  minimum  standard 
required  for  promotion,  while  the  former  takes 
an  enriched  course  of  study,  not  necessarily 
advancing  them  in  the  essential  branches  Both 
divisions  are  expected  to  cover  substantially 
the  same  ground  in  the  subjects  essential  to 
promotion  A  further  modification  of  this 
plan  rests  on  a  differentiation  of  teaching  It 
is  sometimes  known  as  the  Batavia  plan  (q  v  ), 
involving  two  teachers  in  a  room,  the  first  of 
whom  gives  mainly  class  instruction,  while  the 
second  coaches  individuals  who  need  additional 
assistance  in  order  to  make  the  required  rate 
of  progress  A  plan  which  is  very  similar  is 
the  division  of  a  class  into  two  groups,  each 
alternately  receiving  the  attention  of  the 
teacher,  so  that  while  one  group  is  studying, 
the  other  is  reciting  (See  ALTERNATING  SYS- 
TEM ) 

All  these  systems  are  yet  more  or  less  in  the 
experimental  stage,  and  some  of  them  involve 
administrative  difficulties  which  can  be  met 
only  in  exceptional  situations.  It  is  evident, 
however,  that  all  of  them  constitute  important 
attempts  to  produce  a  system,  which,  while 
utilizing  the  economies  and  efficiency  that 
result  from  a  training  of  children  in  homo- 
geneous groups,  shall  nevertheless  have  due 
regard  to  the  individual  in  respect  to  those 
points  at  which  his  interest  demands  some 
variation  from  the  standards  imposed  upqn  the 
group 

It  should  be  noted  that  a  few  educators 
believe  that  a  radically  different  system  of 
grouping  children  may  eventually  prove  more 
satisfactory.  Instead  of  a  homogeneous  group, 
the  late  Professor  Jackman  of  Chicago  Univer- 
sity believed  that  a  group  heterogeneous  so 
far  as  the  years  and  attainments  of  individuals 
were  concerned  could  yet  be  formed  into  an 


organic  umtv  which  would  result  in  the  maxi- 
mum opportunities  for  progress  of  the  individ- 
uals composing  it  From  his  point  of  view  a 
system  of  training  based  laigely  on  activities 
would  find  in  a  given  group  old  and  younp; 
children,  some  bright  and  some  dull,  but  each 
carrying  on  learning  activities  m  conjunction 
with  others  in  such  a  way  as  to  finally  attain 
a  maximum  result  This  system  of  classifica- 
tion would  naturally  require  the  elaboration  of 
pedagogical  theories  which  are  yet  very  hypo- 
thetical 

The  passage  from  one  grade  to  another  in  a 
systematized  course  of  study  is  commonly 
called  promotion  The  failure  of  a  child  to 
pass  this  stage  gives  the  phenomenon  of  retar- 
dation (q  v  ),  which  is  by  some  assumed  to  be 
an  index  of  the  efficiency  of  the  results  of 
teaching  In  the  search  for  incentives  among 
school  children,  promotion  and  non-promotion 
are  often  utilized  as  sources  of  motive  The 
fear  of  non-promotion  among  some  children 
can  be  the  most  powerful  incentive  to  exertion, 
while  with  others  who  are  inclined  to  be  mis- 
chievous it  may  serve  as  an  excellent  deterrent 
to  insure  good  conduct  At  certain  stages  in 
the  educational  career  of  youths  where  promo- 
tion means  advancement  into  other  types  of 
schools  or  into  other  types  of  opportunity,  the 
event  becomes  comparable  in  its  importance  to 
the  ceremony  of  initiation  in  primitive  life 
The  ability  of  the  German  boy  to  pass  the  im- 
perial examination,  which  entitles  him  to  ex- 
emption from  compulsory  military  service  and 
barrack  life,  becomes  an  important  factor  in  the 
social  standing  of  the  vouth  and  his  family 

Tests  for  promotion  from  one  grade  to  an- 
other become  important  features  not  only  in 
the  administration  of  schools,  but  m  deter- 
mining fundamental  characteristics  in  the 
course  of  study  itself  A  highlv  mechanical 
system  tends  to  introduce  external  examina- 
tions as  a  basis  for  promotion  and  graduation 
A  system  in  which  the  teachers  must  be 
stimulated  by  external  aids  makes  free  use  of 
written  examinations  These  developments 
were  best  exemplified  in  the  English  practice 
during  the  period  of  the  so-called  "  payment 
by  results  "  plan  and  in  American  cities  dur- 
ing the  period  from  1870  to  1895  Even 
slight  consideration  will  show  that  a  system 
of  written  examinations  will  test  certain  forms 
of  learning  only,  and  will  quite  fail  to  test 
others  Where  written  examinations  prevail, 
subjects  susceptible  to  this  form  of  test  will 
be  at  a  premium  Present  American  practice, 
however,  tends  not  only  toward  flexible  grad- 
ing, but  toward  flexibility  in  the  conditions 
for  promotion  The  teacher's  judgment  of  the 
pupil's  ability  to  proceed  enters  as  a  factor,  as 
do  also  formal  records  made  of  a  term's  work. 
(See  EXAMINATIONS  ) 

In  secondary  school*  there  is  an  increasing 
tendency  to  guide  the  pupil  on  his  ability  in 
an  individual  subject  rather  than  in  all  subjects 


127 


GRADING   AND   PROMOTION 

taken  together  Promotion  by  subject  then 
comes  to  be  the  nile,  and  graduation  is  possible 
when  a  definite  number  of  units  have  been 
reached 

The  future  development  of  grading  and  pro- 
motion will  rest  more  largely  than  in  the  past 
on  a  study  of  the  needs  and  possibilities  of 
children.  The  study  of  letaidation  (qv)  is 
serving  to  analyze  the  causes  of  the  non- 
promotion  of  children  Some  of  these  causes 
are  found  in  the  course  of  study  itself,  some 
in  matters  like  illness  and  irregular  attendance, 
over  which  the  school  may  have  little  contiol, 
and  some  in  a  failure  to  reach  the  individual 
as  far  as  possible  by  more  scientific  grading 
It  is  possible  that  future  developments  will 
show  that  certain  of  the  subjects  recognized  in 
a  course  of  study  are  of  such  a  nature  that 
definite  stages  of  attainment  or  power  not- 
only  can,  but  must,  be  recognized  as  a  basis  of 
grouping,  whereas  other  subjects  have  only  a 
secondary  bearing  on  the  ability  of  the  child 
to  work  in  one  group  rather  than  in  another 
Tins  differentiation  may  indeed  rest,  to  a  cer- 
tain extent,  on  the  social  importance  of  the 
subjects  For  example,  arithmetic  is  a  subject 
lending  itself  easily  to  a  graduated  statement, 
and  is  also  sufficiently  important  to  be  imposed 
as  a  condition  of  promotion  Nature  study, 
on  the  other  hand,  is  not  easily  graded,  and  its 
importance  may  be  such  as  to  make  it  a 
matter  of  indifference  whether  the  pupil  has 
completed  it  or  not  when  the  question  of  pro- 
motion is  being  considered  In  some  school 
systems  a  deliberate  differentiation  is  now 
being  made  between  "  essential  "  and  "  addi- 
tional "  subjects,  the  former  only  being  con- 
sidered in  connection  with  questions  of  pro- 
motion 

The  operation  of  a  flexible  system  of  grading 
as  described  above  will  be  affected  by  conclu- 
sions yet  to  be  reached  as  to  the  number  of 
different  groups  of  pupils  which  a  teacher  in  a 
given  room  may  handle  to  advantage  Prac- 
tice in  many  places  now  assumes  that  a  grade 
to  a  room  is  the  desirable  condition  It  is 
not  clear,  however,  but  that  a  more  effective 
mastery  of  the  art  of  teaching  might  not 
enable  a  teacher  to  carry  at  least  two  different 
grades  or  groups  along  side  by  side,  with  the 
maximum  advantage  to  all  concerned  D  S 

See  GRADING,  HYGIENE  OF,  RETARDATION, 
ELIMINATION  AND  ACCELERATION  OF  PUPILS 

References :  — 

BAOLEY,  W,  O      Classroom  Management      (New  York, 

1907) 
DUTTON,  S    T  ,  and  SNEDDLN,   I)      Administration  of 

Public  Education  in  the  United  States      (Now  York, 

1908) 
GILBERT,  C   B      The  School  and  its  Lift      (New  York, 

1901.) 
HOLMES,  W    H      Plane  of  Classification  in  the  Public 

Schools.    Fed  Sem  ,  Vol   XVIII,  pp  475-522 
SEARCH,  P   W      The  Ideal  School      (New  Yoik,  189S  ) 
SHEARER,  W  T      7 V«  G™ dmu  of  School*      (NowYoik, 

1898) 
United  States  Bureau  of  Kdueation     THORNDIKE,  K  L  , 


GRADING,   HYGIENE  OF 

The   Elimination  of   Pupils  front   School      Hullctin, 
No  4,11)07    WHTJL,  K  K    Promotion  and  Kxamina- 
tionH   in  Graded  Schools      ('in     of  Inform,    1891 
Reports  of  th<>  Cninnnwoner,  1S01    1892,  pp  303-356, 
1808-1899,  pp   601    fl36 

GRADING       BY       PROMOTION.  —  See 

GRADING  AND  PROMOTION 

GRADING,  FLEXIBLE  —See  GRADING 
AND  PROMOTION 

GRADING,  HYGIENE  OF  —  Modem  in- 
vestigations  have  revolutionized  the  problem 
of  grading  With  the  older  pedagogy  it  was  a 
relatively  simple  thing  to  classify  pupils  merely 
according  to  their  scholastic  attainments 
Now  manv  other  factors  must  he  considered, 
—  physiological  age,  psychological  age,  abihtv 
to  work  and  to  resist  fatigue,  general  physical 
condition,  mental  type  as  regards  imagery, 
attention,  and  the  like  Hence  to-dav  the 
problem  of  gnuling  is  quite  as  much  an  hygienic 
as  a  pedagogical  one 

Roberts,  the  English  anthropologist,  was  one 
of  the  hrst  to  put  special  emphasis  on  the  need 
of  considering  physical  development  in  allot- 
ting pupils  to  the  different  grades  lie  made 
out  a  table  giving  the  statures  and  weights  of 
boys  at  different  ages  and  the  amount  of  time 
that  should  be  allotted  foi  study  and  sleep 
and  rest,  and  he  maintained  that  age  alone  is 
not  sufficient  to  determine  a  child's  position  in 
such  a  table,  that  u  A  child  who  is  much  below 
the  mean  height  and  weight  of  his  age  should 
be  placed  a  year  below,  and  one  who  is  a  good 
deal  above  the  mean,  especially  if  the  weight 
be  good,  may  be  advanced  a  year  above  that 
which  his  actual  age  requires,"  and  that  the 
same  principles  should  be  considered  in  the 
grading  of  girls  as  in  the  grading  of  boys  Dr 
Hrahn  and  others  have  maintained  that  chil- 
dren should  be  graded  according  to  their 
ability  to  work  and  to  resist  fatigue  Recently 
a  demand  for  more  than  this  has  arisen  The 
studies  by  (Hampton  and  others  have  shown 
the  hygienic  necessity  of  considering  physio- 
logical age  in  all  questions  of  grading  and  the 
like  His  study  was  based  on  investigations 
oi  high  school  students,  and  his  general  con- 
clusion was  that,  "  In  future  all  our  thought 
concerning  the  years  nine  to  seventeen  must  be 
released  fiom  the  idea  of  chronological  age 
Statistics  for  groups  or  individuals  respecting 
weight,  height,  strength,  scholarship,  mental 
oi  physical  endurance,  medical  or  social  con- 
ditions, that  arc  not  referred  to  physiological 
age  are  inconsequential  and  misleading  " 

Dr  ('rampton'a  investigations  were  based 
on  actual  physical  examinations  Sometimes 
under  present  conditions  this  is  not  practicable, 
and  in  lieu  of  this  Mr  Foster  maintains  that 
height  is  a  good  index  of  physiological  age, 
and  the  investigations  by  Quirsfeld  support 
this  view  Professor  Rotch  of  Harvard  strongly 
maintains  that  the  appearance  and  ossification 


128 


GRADING,  HYGIENE  OF 


GRADING,  HYGIENE  OF 


of  the  cpiphyseH  of  the  wrist  and  fingers  are  a 
trustworthy  index  of  the  general  osseous  devel- 
opment, and  this  in  turn  of  general  physio- 
logical development  Hence  he  takes  X-ray 
photographs  of  these  bones,  and  determines 
physiological  age  from  them  He  distinguishes 
chronological  age,  anatomical  age,  physiological 
age,  and  functional  cerebral  age,  arid  main- 
tains that  the  normal  correspondence  of  all 
these  ages  should  be  the  standard  for  giad- 
ing  children,  and  that  any  other  method  of 
grouping  is  unpractical  and  illusive  There 
is  at  present  no  consensus  in  regard  to  what 
is  the  best  method  of  determining  physiological 
age  More  studies  of  this  problem  are  greatly 
needed 

Psychological  age  also  must  of  course  be1 
considered  But  though  tests  of  psychological 
ability  and  maturity  have  been  advocated, 
none  altogether  satisfactory  have  yet  been 
devised.  The  most  important  practical  at- 
tempts have  been  in  the  use  of  mental  tests, 
particularly  the  Bmet  tests,  for  detecting  cases 
of  arrested  mental  development  While  idiots 
are  not  likely  to  be  found  in  the  public  schools, 
imbeciles  and  feeble-minded  of  the  higher 
grade,  the  so-called  morons,  are  not  infrequently 
found  The  importance  of  detecting  such  cases 
has  been  vividly  shown  by  I)r  (loddard,  and 
further  investigations  and  the  perfection  of 
such  tests  is  greatly  needed 

The  public  school  must  provide  for  three 
main  classes  of  pupils,  —  the  normal  child  of 
good  ability,  including  the  supernormal,  on 
the  one  hand,  the  defective  children  on  the 
other,  including  those  mentally  and  physically 
deficient,  and  between  these  two  groups  the 
laigc  class  of  children  who  are  more  or  less 
backward  from  various  causes  All  these 
cases  will  be  found  discussed  under  the  scpa- 
late  titles  as  BACKWARD  PUPILS;  BLIND, 
rODiir \TION  OF  THE  ,  ('RIPPLED  CHILDREN,  EDU- 
CATION OF  THE,  DE\F,  EDUCATION  OF  THE, 
DEVF-BLIND,  EDUCATION  OK  THE,  DEFECTI\ES, 
SCHOOLS  FOR,  EXCEPTIONAL  CHILDREN,  NER- 
\ous  CHILDREN,  EDUCATION  OF,  OPEN-AIR 
SCHOOL,  RETARDATION  AND  ELIMINATION  OF 
PUPILS,  SPEECH  DEFECTS,  EDUCATIONAL  TREAT- 
MENT OF,  SPECIAL  CLASSES,  SUPERNORMAL 
CHILDREN,  TURERCULOUS  CHILDREN,  EDUCA- 
TION OF,  etc 

Many  special  plans  have  been  adopted  The 
plan  which  has  received  the  widest  attention, 
and  which  in  a  general  way  illustrates  the 
principle  upon  which  there  is  now  a  consensus, 
is  the  system  of  grading  that  has  been  used 
for  many  years  in  the  schools  of  Mannheim  in 
Germany  The  main  features  of  it  are  as 
follows,  there  is  the  ordinary  school  course  of 
eight  years,  and  besides  the  course  for  defec- 
tives, H ilfiwch  aim ,  such  as  are  found  in  many 
Gorman  cities,  with  a  Tour  years'  couise,  and 
between  the  ordinary  course4  and  the  //W/,v- 
vhulen  a  course  of  six  veais  which  covois  the 
same  ground  as  the  oidinary  school  course, 


but  has  to  do  less  with  details,  has  smaller 
classes,  and  specially  equipped  teachers  Trans- 
fer from  the  shorter  course  to  the  fuller  course 
or  the  reverse  is  easy  at  the  end  of  each  year 
(See  GERMANY,  EDUCATION  IN  )  There  have 
been  many  criticisms  of  this  Mannheim  system; 
but  some  plan  of  this  kind  is  obviously  neces- 
sary, and  such  a  system  seems  to  come  nearer 
than  any  other  which  has  been  tried  to  meet- 
ing the  demands  upon  which  there  is  a  con- 
sensus This  will  not,  however,  solve  the 
deeper  problems  of  grading  While,  if  the 
plan  is  carried  out  with  the  cooperation  of  a 
school  physician,  as  Dr  Moses  maintains  is 
always  necessary,  physical  conditions  will  be 
regarded  in  the  grading,  nevertheless  much 
more  than  this  is  desirable  and  some  plan  of 
grading  that  shall  be  based  upon  classification 
according  to  physiological  age  and  ability  sci- 
entifically determined  must  be  devised 

While  there  is  at  present  no  consensus  in 
regard  to  the  methods  of  determining  such 
development,  the  announcement  of  the  prin- 
ciple is  an  important  contribution  Grading 
merely  according  to  scholastic  attainments  and 
chronological  age  can  no  longer  suffice  Even 
pedagogical  efficiency  demands  more  than  this 
From  the  point  of  view  of  hygiene  it  is  impera- 
tive that  both  in  the  vertical  and  the  horizontal 
grading  regard  should  be  had  foi  the  physical 
condition  and  the  stage  of  development 
Modern  studies  have  shown  that  from  a  third 
to  one  half  of  the  children  in  any  school  are 
likely  to  be  physically  defective  or  suffering 
from  chrome  disease  Serious  lesults  are  likely 
to  follow  when  the  \\eak  and  defective  are 
required  to  do  what  the  strong  ought,  to  do 
Home  of  the  noimal  have  much  greater  endur- 
ance than  others,  some  of  them  belong  to  one 
mental  type,  others  to  different  types,  and 
besides  all  this  theie  are  great  individual  dif- 
feiences  If  we  are  to  make  any  pretense  to 
scientific  pedagogy,  to  say  nothing  of  hygiene, 
we  must  consider  these  facts  and  have  a 
thoroughly  different  plan  of  grading  based  upon 
physiological  and  psychological  age  as  well  as 
scholastic  attainments  W.  H  B. 

References :  — 

AYHEH,  LEONARD  P  Layvardx  in  Our  Kchooh  (New 
Yoik,  1909) 

BHMIN,  M  Die  Trcnnung  der  Schulei  muh  ihrcr  LCIN- 
UmgHfahigkeit  Zakihrift  fur  Sdmlycsundhnh- 
pfleui  1897,  Nos  7  M  \  pp  -*H5  398 

CKAMPTON,  C  W  The  Influence  of  Physiologic  al  Age 
upon  Scholarship  Proc  of  the  Ft,r\t,  S(condt  and 
Thud  Conyicwc^  of  fhc  American  School  Hygiene 
A  Donation  (Springfield,  1910) 

FEILCKK,  F  Zur  Fragf  der  Organisation  der  Volks- 
schnle  in  Mannheim  Zeit  f  Pad  Ptjfchu  ,  Patho- 
logic untlHt/aurn,  1902,  pp  307  ,*41 

FOSTER,  W  L  Physiological  Age  as  a  Basis  for  the 
Classification  of  Pupils  Entering  High  Schools  — 
Relation  of  Pubescence  to  Height  The  Psycho- 
logical Clinic,  May  15,  1910  Vol  IV,  No  .*, 
pp  S3  hS 

CJOUDMID,  H  If  Two  ThouH.md  Noimal  Children 
Measured  l>v  the  Hinet  Measuring  Scale  of  Intclli-' 
gence  Pid  Sew  ,  June,  1911,  pp  lM2-'2fi9 


VOL.  Ill  —  K 


129 


GRADUATE  SCHOOLS 


GRADUATION 


HEYDNER,  G  Die  Scheidung  der  Schiller  nach  ihrer 
Begabung  Em  Wort  wider  das  Mannheimer  Schul- 
system.  (Nurnborg,  1904  ) 

JONES,  W.  F.  An  Experimental-Critical  Study  of  the, 
Problem  of  Grading  and  Promotion  The  Psy- 
chological Clinic,  May  15,  1911,  Vol  V,  No  3, 
pp  63-96 

MAENNEL,  B  The  Auxiliary  School*  of  Germany  Tr. 
by  F  B  Dressier  (Washington,  1907  ) 

QUIRSFELD,  E.  Zur  physischon  und  geistigen  Entwick- 
lung  des  Kindes  wahrend  der  ersten  Sehuljahre 
Internahonalcn  KonyrtxN  fur  ftchulhygienr \  Dntter 
Band,  pp  128-134  (Niimberg,  April,  1904) 

ROTCH,  T  M  Roentgen  Ray  Method  Applied  to  the 
Grading  of  Karly  Life  Proc  of  the  Fourth  CVw- 
gresb  of  the  American  School  Hf/gune  Ansoc  ,  March, 
1910,  pp  1S4  206 

SICKINGER,  A  Organization  grosser  Volksschulkorper 
nach  der  riatUrhchen  Leistungsfahigkeit  der  Kinder 
Jnteniatwnalen  Kongrexs  fur  Schulhygiene,  1904, 
Vol  I,  pp  173-195 

TEWH,  J  Trennung  der  Schuler  nach  der  Begabung 
Padagogische  ZeUung,  1900,  Vol  XXIX,  No  12, 
pp  190-194 

GRADUATE  SCHOOLS,  GRADUATE 
STUDY.  — -  Sec  UNIVERSITIES 

GRADUATE  WORK  —A  term  commonly 
used  in  America  to  indicate  work  done  in  the 
combined  university-college  institutions  beyond 
the  bachelor's  degree,  in  other  words,  univer- 
sity work  as  opposed  to  collegiate  work 

See  UNIVERSITIES,  AMERICAN 

GRADUATION  —  See  COLLEGE,  AMERICAN, 
section  on  length  of  College  Course,  COM- 
MENCEMENT, DEGREES,  also  GRADUATION,  AGE 
OF;  GRADING  AND  PROMOTION,  UNIVERSITIES. 


GRADUATION,  AGE  OF,  FROM  AMERI- 
CAN COLLEGES.  —  The  question  of  age  of 
graduation  from  college  has  constituted  an 
important  factor  in  the  discussion  of  many 
college  problems  of  the  present.  It  has  been 
popularly  supposed  that  the  age  of  graduation 
from  colleges  had  gradually  risen  from  genera- 
tion to  generation,  and  that  the  typical  college 
student  of  the  present  is  more  mature  than  in 
the  past;  consequently  that  the  college  course 
of  the  present  together  with  its  administration 
might  and  should  be  a  very  different  thing 
from  that  of  the  past  and  that  the  relation  of 
college  course  to  secondary  school  on  the  one 
hand  and  to  the  professional  school  on  the 
other  should  be  determined  altogether  irre- 
spective of  past  conditions  The  further 
assumption  was  that  such  relationships  were 
not  so  determined,  and  that  existing  problems 
(see  Problems  of  the  College,  under  COLLEGE, 
AMERICAN)  were  thus  created. 

The  accurate  investigations  into  the  facts  do 
not  reveal  grounds  for  this  general  assumption 
On  the  contrary,  while  there  is  a  certain  con- 
flict of  tendencies  in  different  institutions,  the 
slight  preponderance  of  the  tendency  is  toward 
a  decrease  of  age  rather  than  an  increase 
The  most  extensive  investigation  made  was 
that  by  Professor  W  S  Thomas,  in  1903, 
involving  eleven  institutions  and  more  than 
20,000  students,  and  covering  substantially  the 
entire  nineteenth  century  The  actual  results 
of  this  investigation  shown  by  ten-year  periods 
is  given  in  the  following  table:  — 


MEDIAN   AGES   OF   GRADUATION    BY   DECADES 


DARTMOUTH 

MlDDLLBURY 

BOWDOIN 

UNIVERSITY  of 

V>RMONT 

ADELBEHT 

Age        No 

Age 

No 

Age 

No 

Age 

No 

Age 

No 

1770-1779         

23-  0  •      78 

1780-1789         .... 

23-  1       J50 

1790-1799    

23-  2 

336 

1800-1809          

22-  6 

.*9.< 

>2   jo 

76 

1810-1819    

22-  9      3-*n 

23-  1 

194 

20—  4 

106 

1820-1824                           .     . 

23-  1 

328 

23-  0 

187 

20-  8 

258 

22-4 

59 

1830-1839    .                 ... 

22-  5 

381 

23-  4 

242 

21-  7 

289 

22-7 

80 

23-  0 

41 

1840-1849 

23-  1 

586 

22-  8  j    109 

21-  9 

356 

22-0 

184 

23-  2 

125 

1850-1859               .     . 

24-8      558 

23-  3  |    121 

22-  1 

335 

22-4 

168 

23-  0 

98 

1860-1869          

23-  1      491 

23-  5       132 

22-10 

348 

22-6 

91 

22-10 

160 

1870-1879               .     .     . 

22-10      593 

23-  4       111 

22-  5 

321 

22-6 

9K 

22-  9 

217 

1880-1889    

22-10 

527 

22-11 

86 

°2     8      303 

2''  -8 

108 

O  J         f  \ 

•>r:i 

1890-1899                    .     .     . 

22-   9 

678 

23-  2 

125 

22-  7  ,    481 

22-9 

215 

22-  9 

156 

UNIVERSITY 
OF  ALABAMA 

NEW    YORK 
UNIVERSITY 

WLSLEYAN 

OBERLIN 

DL  PAUW 

SYRACUSE 

Age        No 

Ago 

No 

Age 

No 

Ago 

No 

Age 

No 

Age 

No. 

1830-1839  . 

20-4         57 

20-2 

73 

23-0 

107 

24-11 

34 

1840-1849  . 
1850-1859 
1860-1869 
1870-1879 
1880-1889 
1890-1899 

20-3        126 
20-9        173 
20-0         48 
20-3         66 
20-0        209 
20-2        270 

20-3 
20-7 
20-8 
21-6 
21-1 
21-8 

147 
102 
128 
141 
154 
115 

23  3 
2i-4 
24-0 
23-8 
23-  ? 
23-1. 

231 
231 
260 
325 
32  1 
!.")<, 

25-  6 
25-  2 
24-  0 
24-  3 
24-  '\ 
2J-11 

122 
120 
176 
270 
267 
403 

21-7 
22-9 
23-2 
23-1 
23-2 
23-9 

63 
89 
115 
230 
317 
371 

23-11 
24-  0 
24-  6 
23-  9 
23-U 

28 
29 
138 
224 
264 

130 


GRADUATION 


GRADUATION 


This  table  indicates  that  the  median  age  for 
Dartmouth  has  fallen  (three  months  in  one  hun- 
dred and  thirty  years) ;  that  for  Middlebury  has 
risen  (two  months  in  seventy  years) ,  for  Bowdom 
the  median  age  has  risen  two  years  since  1810, 
but  has  been  falling  for  the  past  sixty  years  In 
only  two  of  the  eleven,  institutions,  the  University 
of  Alabama  and  Syracuse  University,  has  the 
median  age  remained  unchanged  It  is  evi- 
dent that,  whether  this  slight  change  has  been 
an  increase  or  a  decrease,  it  is  chiefly  a  matter 
of  the  individual  colleges 

An  averaging  of  the  median  ages  of  the  several 
colleges  also  shows  that  since  1850  there  has 
been  a  gradual  but  slight  decline  in  the  age  of 
graduation,  amounting  to  two  months  in  all 
A  study  of  the  average  ages  of  graduates  in- 
stead of  the  median  ages  brings  the-  same  rela- 
tive results,  though  the  arithmetical  average 
runs  a  few  months  higher  throughout  the  entire 
period  than  does  the  median  age  This  is  be- 
cause the  few  students  that  are  relatively  much 
older  than  the  average  of  the  group,  of  whom 
every  college  has  some,  diverge  much  more  from 
the  median  than  do  those  below  the  median, 
and  tend  to  bring  up  the  average  dispro- 
portionately It  is  the  gradual  disappear- 
ance of  this  group  of  very  mature  students 
during  the  past  half  century  that  is  tending 
to  lower  both  median  and  average  age  of 
graduation 

Of  greater  importance  than  the  average  or 
median  age  of  graduation  is  the  distribution  of 
the  graduates  by  years  A  comparison  of  the 
aggregate  of  all  graduates  of  those  eleven  col- 
logos  for  the  decade  at  the  middle  of  tho  century 
with  the  decade  at  the  close  shows  that 
not  only  the  average  and  the  median  have 
remained  practically  the  same,  but  that  the 
distribution  of  the  students  is  becoming  far 
loss  wido  This  is  indicated  by  the  following 
diagram,  which  pves  the  distiibution  of  all 
students  graduating  in  these  eleven  institu- 
tions for  the  two  decades  under  consideration 


IB       tO       If       24 


While  the  median  age  of  graduation  remains  prac- 
tically the  same,  22  -f-  years,  the  greater  num- 
ber are  concontratod  in  tho  twenty-first,  twenty- 
second,  and  twenty-third  years  A  furthor  change- 
is  indicated  by  this  diagram,  which  seems  to  bear 
out  tho  old  contention  that  tho  age  of  graduation 
was  rising  The  modo,  indicating  tho  yoar  in 
which  the  greatest  number  of  students  graduated, 
falls  in  the  first  diagram  in  tho  twenty-first  yoar, 
in  the  second  in  the  twenty-second 

The  significant  fact  which  is  indicated  by 
this  as  woll  as  by  other  data  is  that  the  student 
body  is  being  unified  and  standardized  as  to 
age,  as  it  never  has  been  before,  and  that  the 
entire  group  of  college  students  is  coming  to 
be  a  body  of  young  men  between  the  ages  of 
eighteen  and  twenty-three  or  twenty-four  The 
graduating  body  is  largely  concontratod  in  the 
years  twenty-one  to  twenty-four 

The  following  chart  giving  the  distiibution 
for  these  colleges  for  the  two  decades,  half  a 
century  apart,  indicates  this  very  definitely. — 


The  gradual  disappearance  of  the  vei  y  matui  e 
student  accounts  in  a  large  measure  for  this 
aspect  of  the  change  While  the  median  age 
has  remained  approximately  the  same,  the  num- 
ber graduating  before  the  twenty-third  year  has 
greatly  increased  The  following  chart  shows 
this  distribution  for  the  past  fifty  years  for  the 
entire  group  of  colleges  studied 

The  percent  ago  of  the  graduates  under  twenty- 
three  has  nsen  from  50  to  57  per  cent,  indicat- 
ing again  that  the  impression,  so  generally  hold, 


131 


GRADUATION 


GRAMMAR 


that  the  age  of  graduation  had  increased  was 
based  on  the  extreme  or  isolated  instances. 


sr  • 
sg-  - 

JS-  - 
54 
S* 
ft 

SI 


Cntluttiaj  uncttr  £3  yttrs 
Ml  Co//tj*9. 


n&o  -  nto  - 1970  -  t*6o-  nw-  noo- 


A  more  recent  investigation  by  Professor 
George  D  Strayer,  based  upon  ninety-three 
selected  colleges  and  covering  the  first  decade  of 
the  present  century,  shows  substantially  the 
same  conditions.  The  median  ages  of  gradua- 
tion for  the  middle  50  per  cent  of  the  colleges 
are  included  within  the  limits,  22  years  and  6 
months  and  22  years  and  9  months  For 
women  the  median  ago  is  22  years  and  8  months, 
the  middle  50  per  cent  falling  between  the  limits 
22  years  and  23  years  and  3  months 

The  investigations  conducted  each  quin- 
quennial period  by  the  authorities  of  Harvard 
University  into  the  ago  of  the  entering  class 
support  substantially  the  same  results  The 
average  age  of  tho  entering  class  was  18  years 
and  9  months  in  1876,  and  from  that  tune  to 
1900  gradually  increased  to  19  years  and  4 
months,  since  which  time  it  has,  with  slight 
variations,  gradually  decreased 

In  general  wo  may  say  that  the  assumption 
that  theie  has  boon  a  groat  advance  in  tho  aver- 
age age  of  the  college  graduates  was  an  error; 
that  there  are  but  few  institutions  where  such  an 
increase  has  occuired,  that  this  is  oflset  by 
a  coi responding  decrease  in  other  institutions; 
and  that  the  change  either  way  for  tho  larger 
part  of  the  nineteenth  century  was  very  slight. 
What  is  occurring  is  the  elimination  of  the  very 
young  students  and  the  very  mature,  and  the 
standardizing  of  the  entire  group 

As  in  the  early  part  of  tho  nineteenth  century 
the  curriculum  itself  had  a  fixed  organization 
and  the  student  body  was  much  differentiated 
in  age,  the  reverse  comes  to  be  true  toward 
the  close  of  the  century  the  curriculum  loses 
its  fixed  character  and  becomes  fluid,  but,  the 
student  body  becomes  standardized  as  to  age 
and  tho  college  comes  to  take  a  veiy  definite 
place  in  our  system  of  education  of  foui  years 
in  length  following  four  years  of  high  school  or 
preparatory  and  eight  years  of  elementary 
school  work,  and  approximating  the  eighteen  to 
twenty-two  years  of  the  student  life 

References :  — 

THOMAS,  W  S      Change  in  the  age  of  college  graduates. 

Report  of  the  U  *S  Commissioner  of  Education,  1902, 

Vol   II,  p  2199 

Report   of    President  of   Harvard   College,    1904-1905, 
1909-1910 


132 


GRAFE,  HEINRICH  (1802-1868).  —  A 
German  teacher  and  educational  writer,  born 
in  Buttstadt  in  Thunngia  After  studying 
mathematics,  philosophy,  and  theology  in  the 
University  of  Jena  (1820-1823),  he  first  became 
a  clergyman,  then  the  principal  of  the  city 
school  at  Jena  In  1840  he  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  pedagogy  in  the  University  of  Jena, 
a  position  which  two  years  later  he  changed  for 
the  principalship  of  a  Realschule  in  Cassel. 
He  took  part  in  the  political  struggles  of  the 
year  1848,  which  caused  his  imprisonment,  and 
afterwards  forced  him  to  flee  to  Switzerland. 
From  there  he  was  called  as  a  principal  to  Bre- 
men in  1855,  and  remained  there  until  his  death 
His  chief  works  are:  Allgemeine  Padagogik 
(General  Pedagogy,  Leipzig,  1845),  and  Die 
deutsche  Volksschule  (The  German  Public 
School,  Leipzig,  1847).  F.  M. 

GRAMMAR,  ENGLISH  —  Historical  De- 
velopment —  The  first  work  on  this  subject  was 
actually  written  in  Latin,  viz  the  Giammatica 
Anghcana  by  P  G  ,  who  is  supposed  to  be  a  cer- 
tain P  Greenwood,  in  1594  It  is  a  booklet, 
containing  short  chapters  on  letters,  syllables, 
parts  of  speech  The  book  professes  to  deal 
especially  with  those  points  m  which  English 
differs  from  Latin  grammar  It  IK  of  interest 
because  it  contains  a  vocabulary  of  Chaucerian 
words,  together  with  their  signification  There 
is  also  the  first  ticatment  of  the  parsing,  or,  as  it 
is  called,  "  analysis  "  of  English  In  1624  John 
Hewes  published  A  Perfect  Survey  of  the  Eng- 
lish Tongue  He  claims  that  his  book  serves 
for  the  exposition  of  Lily's  Latin  Grammar 
rules  The  author  endeavors  to  deal  with 
English  expressions,  a  posteriori,  as  the  ground- 
work for  the  Latin  Hewes  thus  treats  of 
moods,  tenses,  cases  as  found  in  English,  and 
thus  leads  on  to  the  Latin  Hewes  was  suc- 
ceeded by  William  Walker  (1623-1682),  who 
follows  the  same  method,  but.  develops  it  more 
fully  m  his  famous  Treatise  of  English  Particles 
(published  before  1660)  Walker  expounds 
English  particles  as  the  preliminary  to  learning 
to  write  Latin  composition  In  1633  Charles 
Butler  wrote  the  English  Grammar,  a  work 
which  gives  a  real  English  accidence  independ- 
ent of  Latin  It  goes  into  questions  of  spelling 
and  gathers  from  Sir  John  Prince  the  story  of 
four  good  secretaries  writing  in  English  from 
dictation,  making  many  differences  of  spelling, 
whereas  four  noblemen  writing  the  same  in 
their  language  all  wrote  exactly  the  same  letters. 
Butler  traces  the  uncertainty  in  English  spell- 
ing to  the  imperfection  of  the  alphabet.  Both 
Butler  and  Gill  utilize  the  Anglo-Saxon  signs 
for  the  different  sounds  of  th  In  1640  Simon 
Dames  published  a  book,  exactly  described  by 
the  title:  Orthoepia  Anghcana,  or  the  first 
principall  part  of  the  English  Grammar  Teach- 
ing the  Art  of  right  speaking  and  pronouncing 
English,  with  certaine  exact  rules  of  Orthography, 
and  rules  of  spelhng  or  combining  of  syllables, 


GRAMMAR 


GRAMMAR 


and  directions  for  keeping  of  stop*  or  points 
between  sentence  and  sentence  A  work  in  itself 
absolute,  and  never  known  to  be  accomplished 
by  any  before '  No  lesse  profitable  than  neces- 
sary for  all  sorts,  as  well  Native  as  Foreigners, 
that  desire  to  attains  the  perfection  of  our  English 
Tongue  Methodically  composed  by  the  in- 
dustry and  observation  of  Simon  Dames,  School- 
master of  Hintlesham  in  Suffs  Lond  1640 
The  next  English  grammar  was  that  "made" 
by  Ben  Jonson,  the  dramatist,  "  for  the  benefit 
of  all  strangers  out  of  his  observation  of  the 
English  language  how  spoken  and  in  use  " 

The  grammar  unfinished  and  not  published 
until   1640,  three  years  after  Jonson's  death, 
is    accompanied    with    a    Latin    commentary 
Jonson  quotes  first  the  older  writers,  e  g  Chaucer, 
(iower,  Lydgate,  Foxe,  More,  Ascham,  Cheke, 
Jewel,  so  as  to  illustrate  and  authorize  particular 
usages  of  grammar,  and  supplies  items  of  his- 
torical treatment  of  syntax      In  1653  was  pub- 
lished A  New  English  Grammar  by  J.  Wharton 
This  was  piofessedly  useful  for  scholars  before 
entrance  on  the  Latin  tongue,  and  therefore 
starts  a  new  period  in  the  teaching  of  English 
It  was  also  devised,  like  Jonson's,  for  the  use  of 
strangers    learning    English      Wharton    points 
out  that  English  is  "  happy  beyond  both  Latin 
and  CJreek,"  in  that  it  "  needeth  little  or  no 
grammar  at  all  "     In  the  years  1711  and  1712 
no    less    than    three    English    grammars    were 
published,  viz    that  of  John   Bnghtland  (q  v  ) 
and  Michael  Maittaire  (q  v  )  and  that  of  James 
Greenwood  (Essay  towards  a  Practical  English 
Grammar)      These     grammars     provoked     an 
attack   bv  the  anonymous  writers  of   Bellum 
Grammatical?,  consisting  of  reflections  on  the 
three  English  grammars  "  published  in  about 
a  year  last  past"   in   1712      In   1762   Robert 
Lowth,  Bishop  of  London,  published  A   Short 
Introduction  to  English  (ham  mar,  which  strongly 
emphasizes  the  question  of  good  use  in  grammar. 
This  was -a  work  of   considerable  merit,   ran 
through  many   editions  in    England,  and   was 
republished    at    Cambridge,    Mass,    in    1811 
Lowth's  work  was  criticized  by  William  Cob- 
bett  in  his  well-known  Grammar  of  the  English 
Language   in  a  scries  of  letters,    1818       Cob- 
bett  states  that  his  Grammar  was  intended  for 
the  use  of  schools  and  of  young  persons,  "  but 
more  especially  for  the  use  of  soldiers,  sailors, 
apprentices  and  plough-bo vs  "     But  still  more 
popular  than  Cobbctt's  book  was  the  English 
Grammar  of   Lmdley  Murrav  (</  v  ),  published 
m  England  in    1795.      Both  in  England  and 
America  this  was  for  many  years  the  chief,  al- 
most only,  English  grammar  used,  particularly 
in  girls'  schools,  for  which  it  was  first  written 
It  went  through  some  fifty  editions,  and  an 
abridgment,  first  published   in    1818,  reached 
over  120  editions  of  ten  thousand  each      (See 
Dictionary  of  National  Biography)      The^  first 
writer  of  an  Anglo-Saxon  grammar  was  Eliza- 
beth Elstob  (qv),  1715      The  pioneer  in  the 
school  teaching  of  historical  English  grammar 


in  England  was  I)i  Richard  Moms,  Head- 
master from  1875  to  1888  of  the  Royal  Masonic 
Institution  for  Boys  at  Wood  (irecn  near  Lon- 
don In  1872  he  wrote  his  Historical  Outlines 
of  English  Accidence,  which  went  through 
twenty  editions  before  his  death,  and,  making 
the  subject  matter  more  and  more  elementary, 
he  published  in  1874  his  Elementary  Le.ssvw.s 
in  Historical  English  Grammai ,  and  in  the  same 
year  the  Primer  of  English  Grammai  F  W 

Grammatical  Study  -  The  grammar  of  the 
vernacular  has  not  usually  been  regarded  as  a 
subject  for  scientific  consideration  in  itself,  but 
the  views  which  have  been  held  with  respect 
to  it  from  time  to  time,  and  which  have  guided 
instruction  in  the  subject  and  the  composition 
of  textbooks  intended  for  use  in  instruction, 
when  they  have  not  been  merely  utilitarian, 
have  been  rather  a  reflection  of  the  prevailing 
modes  of  philosophical  or  linguistic  thought 
in  general  Moreover,  methods  of  instruction 
in  English  grammar,  as  exemplified  in  the  text- 
books, have  been  extremely  traditional,  and 
have  followed  a  few  established  models,  with 
the  result  that  though  the  number  of  English 
grammars  is  legion,  they  have  added  relatively 
little  to  the  development  of  serious  and  inde- 
pendent theory  with  respect  to  the  subject 

Two  schools  of  thought  in  especial  have  ex- 
erted a  powerful  influence  upon  the  conception 
of  grammar,  first,  the  systematic  philosophic 
thought  of  the  eighteenth  century,  and  secondly, 
the  modern  scientific  thought,  as  exhibited 
mainly  in  the  sciences  of  psychology  arid  his- 
torical linguistics  The  principal  inheritance 
of  grammar  from  philosophy  is  to  be  found  in 
the  grammatical  definition  The  conventional 
definition  of  the  sentence,  for  example,  or  of  the 
parts  of  speech,  is  based  upon  the  assumption 
of  a  correspondence  between  the  forms  of  speech 
and  the  categories  of  a  foimal  logical  system 
A  grammatical  statement  of  a  language,  ac- 
cording to  this  conception,  would  consist  of 
a  statement  of  all  the  modes  of  thought  possible 
in  that  language  Several  important  conse- 
quences and  corollaries  have  followed  from 
this  a  priori,  logical  way  of  regarding  the  classi- 
fications of  grammar.  In  the  first  place,  if 
there  is  one  logical  form  of  thought  to  which 
the  forms  of  speech  each  respectively  belong, 
manifestly  theic  is  one  and  only  one  possible 
definition  of  a  grammatical  group  of  phenomena, 
and  this  defmit  ion  is  absolute  and  right  Thei  e 
thus  has  arisen  in  grammar  the  feeling  for  the 
dogmatic  character  of  the  definition  or  rule, 
and  the  desire  to  make  the  phenomena  of  lan- 
guage conform  forcibly  to  the  rule  if  they  seem 
to  differ  from  it  So  much  the  worse  for  the 
language,  says  in  effect  the  logical  grammarian, 
if  it  docs  not  conform  to  the  fundamental  laws 
of  the  mind  This  has  been  the  main  defect 
of  the  logical  method  in  grammar,  that  it  has 
preferred  a  specious  appearance  of  regularity 
and  system  to  the  actual  variety  and  unsys- 
tematic wealth  of  detail  of  real  speech  r|M 


The 


133 


GRAMMAR 


GRAMMAR 


forms  of  speech  do  not  fall  into  simple  cate- 
gories, but,  as  obseivatmn  quickly  shows,  they 
overlap  and  often  shift  their  functions  in  a  way 
which  can  be  described  adequately  only  in  the 
terms  of  a  system  too  complex  for  practical 
grammar. 

Disregarding  the  so-called  "  fundamental 
laws  of  the  mind,"  the  scientific  grammarian 
has  tended  to  approach  the  subject  from 
an  inductive  point  of  view,  and  has  studied 
the  individual  forms  of  speech  m  relation  to 
their  corresponding  moments  of  mental  activity, 
rather  than  in  relation  to  any  supposed  per- 
manent characteristics  of  the  mind  The  sig- 
nificance of  the  definitions,  according  to  this 
conception  of  grammar,  is  something  quite  differ- 
ent from  the  significance  of  the  definition  accord- 
ing to  the  philosophical  or  logical  method  of 
systematizing  language  The  scientific  gram- 
marian regards  his  definition  as  merely  a  con- 
venient summary  statement  of  the  facts  he  has 
observed  It  has  no  final  sanction  of  any  sort, 
but  is  open  to  alteration  and  to  extension  as 
new  facts  are  added  to  the  field  of  observation 
The  spirit  of  this  method  of  grammatical  study 
is  consequently  not  dogmatic,  but  is  the  spirit 
of  all  inductive  science  in  which  generalizations 
are  regarded  as  the  summary  statements  of 
accumulated  details  It  follows  that  the 
definition,  rules,  or  generalizations  which  the 
grammarian  of  this  way  of  thinking  wishes  to 
make  must  be  definitions  or  generalizations 
of  only  such  phenomena  as  those  for  whom 
his  grammatical  system  is  intended  are  capable 
of  observing  and  understanding  for  themselves 
A  completely  scientific  grammar  of  English 
would  neglect  no  phenomenon  of  the  speech, 
no  matter  how  insignificant  intrinsically  or 
how  limited  the  extent  of  its  use  The  ideal 
of  the  philosophic  grammarian  is  to  formulate 
all  the  activities  of  the  mind  into  logical  defi- 
nitions, and  then  to  illustrate  these  definitions 
by  means  of  examples  taken  from  the  practice 
of  the  language  The  ideal  of  the  scientific 
grammarian,  as  unattainable  as  that  of  the 
philosopher,  but  perhaps  a  safer  guide  in  actual 
practice,  is  to  observe  all  the  phenomena  of  the 
language  as  they  are  exhibited  in  use,  and  then 
to  arrive  at  such  principles  or  rules  as  will  come 
without  misrepresentation  of  the  phenomena 
upon  which  they  are  based  This  ideal  aim 
of  the  grammarian  must  necessarily  be  modified 
in  practice  to  accord  with  the  more  limited 
purposes  of  teaching  and  the  more  limited 
capacities  of  students  No  matter  how  ele- 
mentary the  effort,  however,  the  evidence  of 
the  vast  number  of  contemporary  or  older 
English  grammars  goes  to  show  that  one  or 
other  of  these  two  conceptions  was  uppermost 
in  the  minds  of  the  writers,  either  that  the 
grammar  presented  illustrations  of  the  ob- 
servation of  immutable,  logical  laws  of  thought, 
or  that  it  was  a  series  of  observations,  classified 
and  designated  on  the  basis  of  their  similarities, 
the  classification  being  subject  to  modification 


according  as  the  area  of  observation  was  in- 
creased or  decreased  The  grammars  of  the4 
first  type  are  represented  by  Murray's  and  by 
the  large  number  of  grammars  which  assume 
the  position  of  arbiters  of  good  use.  The 
grammars  of  the  second  type,  unfortunately 
not  yet  the  prevailing  one,  are  represented  by 
modern  historical  grammars,  the  purpose  of 
which  is  to  make  a  descriptive  statement  of 
the  past  facts  of  the  language,  and  also  by  an 
increasingly  large  number  of  practical  school 
grammars  written  not  from  the  point  of  view 
of  dogmatic  good  use,  but  with  the  purpose  of 
training  the  student  in  the  observation  and 
valuation  of  the  processes  of  language.  The 
earliest  English  grammars  were  written  from 
the  point  of  view  of  the  Latin  and  for  the  pur- 
pose of  making  the  study  of  the  Latin  easier 

During  the  larger  part  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury, grammar  held  —  next  to  spelling  —  not 
only  the  principal  place  in  English  instruction, 
but,  in  the  upper  grades,  the  principal  place 
in  the  curriculum  of  the  elementary  school 
The  two  most  famous  grammars  of  the  early 
days  were  Noah  Webster's  and  Lmdley  Mur- 
ray's, both  published  near  the  end  of  the  eight- 
eenth century  Murray's  grammar  became, 
like  Webster's  spelling  book,  the  standard; 
and  the  authority  of  Lmdley  Munay  was 
sufficient  to  settle  any  point  of  disputed  usage 
or  doubtful  syntax 

The  curriculum  of  the  common  schools  in- 
cluded, up  to  the  last  quarter  of  the  preceding 
century,  little  besides  reading,  spelling,  arith- 
metic, geography,  and  grammai  In  the  upper 
grades  grammar  vied  with  arithmetic  in  the 
amount  of  tune  and  energy  devoted  to  it,  and 
in  the  value  and  respect  accorded  to  it  m  the 
schoolroom  and  in  the  community  To  be 
known  as  a  good  "  grammarian,"  that  is,  as 
a  student  versed  in  the  grammatical  rules  as 
given  in  the  textbook,  and  skillful  in  parsing 
and  in  syntactical  analysis,  was  to  win,  in  effect, 
a  kind  of  intellectual  preeminence  Moot 
questions  of  grammatical  construction  were 
often  the  subject  of  excited  debate,  like  diffi- 
cult, or  u  catch,"  problems  in  arithmetic 
Grammar  was,  in  brief,  the  intellectual  joust- 
ing ground  of  many  sharp  and  eager,  though 
underfed,  intellects  (3  P  K 

Content  and  Nature  of  Grammar  —  Di- 
versity of  purpose,  of  method,  and  of  content 
are  the  most  striking  characteristics  of  modern 
English  school  grammars  viewed  as  a  whole. 
The  constant  features  are  discussions  of  the 
parts  of  speech,  of  inflections,  and,  to  some  ex- 
tent, of  syntax.  Some  grammars  add  phonetics, 
others  the  composition  of  words  by  prefixes 
and  suffixes,  or  prosody,  or  the  rules  of  spelling, 
or  of  paragraphing,  or  forms  for  letter  writing, 
or  symbols  for  proofreading,  or  tables  of 
weights  and  measures,  etc  This  variety  in 
the  content  of  modern  school  grammars  is 
partly  due  to  the  presence  of  survivals  from 
older  and  outgrown  conceptions  of  grammar. 


134 


GRAMMAR 


GRAMMAR 


Thi'  old-fashioned  village  grammar  of  general 
information,  planned  for  students  whoso  entire 
English  training  was  obtained  through  the  study 
of  English  grammar,  accounts  for  some  of  the 
topics  Others,  like  prosody,  for  example,  are 
merely  survivals  from  the  old  Latin  grammars 
In  the  classical  and  Renaissance  conception  of 
grammar  as  an  art  comprehending  the  appre- 
ciation and  practice  of  literature  as  well  as 
the  elementary  rules  of  the  language,  prosody 
logically  had  a  place  It  survives  now  in  gram- 
mars only  because  there  is  no  other  convenient 
place  to  put  it  Of  similar  origin  is  the  divi- 
sion of  etymology,  which  is  still  used  to  describe 
a  section  of  English  grammar  having  to  do  with 
the  forms  of  words,  including  inflections,  deri- 
vation, and  composition  In  the  old  Latin 
school  grammars,  as  for  example  in  Lilv,  the  two 
mam  divisions  of  the  subject  were  etymology, 
i  c  accidence,  etc  ,  and  syntax,  i  e  concord 
But  the  modern  sense  of  the  word  "  etymology  " 
is  something  very  different  from  this  traditional 
use  of  the  word,  and  what  the  old  grammais 
call  etymology  would  now  be  called  morphol- 
ogy 

An  examination  of  those  modern  grammars, 
written  by  persons  of  some  independence  of 
purpose  and  of  scholarship,  shows  that  three 
main  conceptions  of  the  subject,  mixed  in  vary- 
ing proportions,  are  prevalent  The  first  is  the 
conception  of  grammar  as  a  guide  to  good  use, 
the  second  as  the  study  of  the  system  of  the 
language  m  its  broadest  meaning  as  an  expres- 
sion of  thought,  and  third  a  narrower  definition 
of  the  system  of  the  language,  corresponding 
practically  to  the  usual  popular  understand- 
ing of  the  term  "  grammar  "  The  conception 
of  grammar  as  a  guide  to  good  use  no  longer 
enjoys  the  favor  it  once  received  This  con- 
ception is  also  in  large  measure  an  inheritance 
from  the  Latin  grammar  of  the  Renaissance, 
in  which  grammar  was  defined  as  u  the  ait  of 
correct  speaking  or  writing  "  This  theory  was 
hrst  taken  over  explicitly  into  English  grammar 
by  Bishop  Lowtli  in  his  tihoit  Introduction  to 
English  Gramma  i  (17(i7)  In  his  preface, 
Bishop  Lowth  declares  that  "  the  principal 
design  of  a  Grammai  of  any  Language  is  to 
teach  us  to  express  ourselves  with  propriety 
in  that  language,  and  to  enable  us  to  judge  of 
every  phrase  and  form  of  construction,  whether 
it  be  right  or  not  "  In  other  words,  according 
to  this  theory,  the  purpose  of  grammar  is  to 
serve  as  a  handmaiden  to  the  art  of  speaking 
and  writing  In  communities  of  mixed  racial 
and  social  provenience,  in  which  there  exists 
a  confused  and  uncertain  use  of  the  idiom  in 
colloquial  speech,  as  is  the  case,  for  example, 
in  most  American  city  schools,  it  is  necessary 
to  give  much  attention  to  drill  in  the  details 
of  propriety  of  expression  Yet  the  tendency 
of  modern  theory  and  practice,  which  seems  to 
be  in  the  right  direction,  is  to  place  less  stress 
upon  good  use  as  the  mam  principle  of  the  study 
of  grammar.  It  is  coming  to  be  recognized 


that  the  rules  of  use  are  so  complex  and  so  far 
beyond  the  grasp  of  the  child  that,  to  place  them 
in  a  grammar  which  makes  pretense  to  a  reasoned 
system  is  bound  to  end  in  confusion  Pre- 
sented merely  dogmatically,  without  attempt 
at  rational  or  historical  explanation,  the  rules  of 
use  find  a  more  justifiable  place  in  the  study 
of  written  composition  or  in  the  drill  of  the 
daily  colloquial  intercourse  of  the  classroom 
Although  the  end,  therefore,  of  inculcating 
good  use  may  be  to  some  extent  attained  by 
the  study  of  grammar,  it  is  now  usually  assumed 
that  this  end  should  be  one  of  the  by-products 
of  such  study,  and  not  its  mam  purpose  and 
justification  Such  being  the  case,  the  custom 
of  introducing  examples  of  bad  use  into  the 
study  of  grammar  is  one  of  doubtful  expediency 
The  safest  rule  seems  to  be  to  include  in  the 
system  of  elementary  grammar  only  what  is 
recognized  as  the  normal  use  of  educated 
people,  with  an  exception  perhaps  in  favor  of 
occasional  instances  of  divided  use 

The  two  remaining  theories  concerning  the 
teaching  of  grammar  have  this  in  common,  that 
they  both  endeavor  to  approach  the  subject  in 
a  measurably  scientific  and  systematic  spirit 
They  differ  widely,  however,  in  the  theoretical 
limits  which  they  place  upon  the  subject  In 
the  broader  conception  of  the  two,  the  limits 
of  grammar  are  made  commensurate  with  those 
of  the  science  of  language,  or  the  relations  of 
speech  to  thought  Thus,  according  to  one 
writer,  "  Grammar  mav  be  defined  as  the  study 
of  the  relation  between  mental  action  and  the 
forms  of  language  expression  "  (Davenport 
and  Emerson,  Pi  maple*  of  Grammar,  p  1), 
the  mam  stress  being  here  placed  upon  logic 
Another  declares  that  "  Grammar  is  a  sys- 
tematic description  of  the  essential  principles 
of  a  language  or  a  group  of  languages 
English  grammar  gives  a  systematic  account 
of  the  English  language"  (Carpentei,  Prin- 
ciples of  English  Grammar,  pp  1-5)  A  broad 
theoretical  definition  of  this  kind  is  manifestly 
impossible  in  practical  execution  No  elemen- 
tary grammar  can  attempt  to  study  in  any 
systematic  way  all  the  principles,  either  logical 
or  historical,  which  he  at  the  base  of  a  language 
Whitney  (Kttwnttals,  p  III),  with  his  usual 
wisdom',  states  the  only  position  which  the 
scientific  study  of  elementary  giammar  can 
maintain  He  avoids  a  positive  theoretical 
definition  of  the  subject,  but  announces  his 
practical  purpose  to  be  *'  to  put  before  the 
learner  those  matters  which  will  best  serve  him 
as  a  preparation  for  furthei  and  deeper  knowl- 
edge of  his  own  language,  for  the  study  of  other 
languages,  and  for  that  of  language  in  general  " 

The  study  of  elementary  giammar,  either  as 
the  science  of  language  or  as  preliminary  prepa- 
ration to  the  science  of  language,  is  a  way  of 
regarding  the  subject  which  has  arisen  naturally 
from  the  modern  science  of  linguistics  It 
would  seem,  however,  that  the  content  and 
purpose  of  the  teaching  of  elementary  grammar 


135 


GRAMMAR 


GRAMMAR 


should  be  determined  by  the  possibilities  and 
needs  of  elementary  instriielum  rather  than 
by  scholarly  theories  of  the  subject  In  an- 
swer to  this  conviction,  we  have  a  third  con- 
ception of  grammar,  which  still  endeavors  to 
be  systematic,  but  does  not  try  to  cover  the 
whole  held  of  linguistics  According  to  this 
understanding  of  the  subject,  elementary 
grammar  is  defined  as  "  an  account  of  the  re- 
lations which  words  bear  to  one  another  when 
they  are  put  together  in  sentences  "  (Huehler, 
A  Modern  Enqlixh  (irammw  ,\)  11)  Or  again, 
it  is  "  the  science  which  treats  of  the  nature  of 
words  (i  c  the  parts  of  speech),  their  forms 
(inflections),  and  their  uses  and  relations  in  the 
sentence "  (Baskervill  and  Sewell,  English 
Grammar,  p  12)  A  third  definition  makes 
grammar  "  the  science  which  treats  of  the  Forms 
and  the  Constructions  of  words  "  (i  e.  of  in- 
flections and  syntax)  (Kittredge  and  Arnold, 
The  Mother  Tongue,  Book  II,  p  xv-)  Gram- 
mar, as  thus  defined,  takes  account  chiefly 
of  the  relationships  of  words  to  each  other  in 
groups  The  unity  which  it  attempts  to  im- 
press upon  the  mind  of  the  student  is  the  unity 
of  the  word  group,  and  ultimately  of  the  sen- 
tence A  unified  conception  of  a  science  of 
language,  either  from  the  logical  or  historical 
point  of  view,  is  not  implied  in  these  treatments 
of  the  subject,  and  though  historical  and  other 
considerations  may  be  admitted,  if  it  seems  ad- 
visable to  admit  them,  it  should  be  recognized 
that  the  unity  of  the  sentence  is  the  essential 
element  which  determines  both  the  content  and 
method  of  such  teaching  of  the  elements  of 
grammar  Thus  limited,  the  subject  becomes 
practically  syntax 

In  a  strict  application  of  the  theory  of  the 
study  of  grammar  as  the  syntax  of  the  sentence, 
a  number  of  features  commonly  included  under 
the  heads  of  grammar  will  be  seen  to  be  out  of 
place  In  the  classification  of  the  noun,  for 
example,  the  distinctions  of  concrete  arid  ab- 
stract, of  common  and  proper,  etc  ,  have  purely 
logical  and  not  syntactical  value  Some  gram- 
mars give  a  class  of  "material  nouns/'  glass, 
wood,  iron,  etc  ,  which  suggests  to  what  ex- 
tremes a  logical  classification  of  nouns  could  go 
In  the  same  way,  the  gender  of  nouns  is  of 
little  syntactical  significance  In  the  gram- 
mar of  the  earlier  periods  of  the  English  lan- 
guage, when  gender  was  still  a  grammatical, 
not  merely  a  natural  distinction  in  nouns,  the 
rules  of  concord  made  gender  very  important 
syntactically.  Hut  in  modern  English  the  ques- 
tion of  gender  in  nouns  is  raised  only  when  the 
agreement  of  the  personal  pronoun  of  the  third 
person  singular  with  its  antecedents  is  to  be 
determined,  and  here  also  the  feeling  is  for 
logical  rather  than  formal  grammatical  agree- 
ment. The  same  principles  apply  to  many 
of  the  subclassifications  of  the  other  parts  of 
speech,  e.g  of  the  adverb,  as  of  time,  place, 
manner,  degree,  distance,  etc  ;  of  the  conjunc- 
tion, as  concessive,  causal,  temporal,  local,  etc. 


136 


In  a  rigid  definition  of  grammar  as  the  study 
of  words  in  the  context  of  the  sentence,  such 
logical  subelassification  can  find  a  justifiable 
place  only  when  they  make  clearer  the  functional 
nature  of  the  part  of  speech  in  question 

The  task  of  teaching  elementary  English 
grammar  is  harder  than  it  would  be  if  every 
syntactical  construction  told  its  meaning  by 
the  forms,  or  inflections,  of  its  words  English, 
however,  has  lost  practically  all  of  its  inflections, 
and  it  is  in  the  necessity  of  apprehending  func- 
tion, whether  with  the  aid  of  form  or  without  it, 
that  the  teacher  finds  his  main  difficulty,  as 
also  his  greatest  opportunity  Hy  a  process  of 
abstraction,  words  are  taken  up  and  discussed 
as  parts  of  speech  as  though  they  could  have 
meaning  and  function  independent  of  their  com- 
binations with  other  words  In  considering 
inflections,  this  abstract  discussion  is  continued 
by  associating  with  the  noun,  for  example,  the 
formal  marks  of  numbers,  with  the  pronoun 
the  marks  of  numbers  and  case,  with  the  verb 
the  marks  of  person  or  tense,  in  each  instance 
as  though  number,  person,  tense,  etc  ,  were 
characteristics  which  may  have  existence  apart 
from  context  These  abstractions,  however, 
are  merely  the  way  of  approach  to  the  vital 
organization  of  the  parts  ot  speech  mutually 
dependent  upon  each  other  Having  analyzed 
the  elements  of  speech,  the  student  is  then 
brought  to  synthesize  them  in  the  formation  of 
speech.  The  language  upon  which  study 
should  be  based  obviously  should  not  be  too 
remote  from  the  experience  of  the  student  — 
not  puzzles  of  grammar,  or  the  language  of 
literary  prose  and  poetry  It  should  be  normal 
language  of  daily  use,  and  the  student  should 
realize  that  the  real  life  of  language  passes  not 
only  in  the  minds  of  authors  and  scholars,  but 
in  his  own  and  in  the  mind  of  every  one  who 
uses  the  language 

The  completed  sentence  is  the  largest  term  in 
which  the  language  consciousness  of  the  naive 
speaker  or  writer  moves,  and  beyond  this,  in 
the  group  of  sentences,  in  the  paragraph,  and 
in  the  essay,  etc  As  a  whole,  there  is  unity, 
but  it  is  unity  of  an  entirely  different  kind 
from  the  unity  of  the  sentence  One  may 
think  and  write  the  English  language  without 
the  paragraph,  but  not  without  the  sentence. 
The  sentence  is  the  necessary  unit  of  expres- 
sion, and  the  mastery  of  it  entails  at  least  a 
practical  command  over  the  English  language. 
It  is  in  this  way  that  grammar,  considered  as 
the  study  of  the  sentence,  connects  with  the 
study  of  the  art  of  expression  It  should  be 
the  result  of  the  study  of  grammar  that  stu- 
dents become  aware  of  the  plastic  nature  of 
language,  and  although  questions  of  effective- 
ness in  speech  are  not  primarily  questions  of 
grammar,  they  are  close  and  material  se- 
quences of  grammatical  speculation  Though 
the  conception  of  grammar  as  the  study  of  the 
functions  and  the  forms  of  words  in  sentence- 
forming  combinations  may  seem  narrow  as 


GRAMMAR 


GRAMMAR 


compared  with  the  broad  program  of  the 
science  of  language,  it  nevertheless  leads  to 
what  is  the  practical  end  and  reason  for  the 
existence  of  all  language,  the  expression  of 
thought  by  means  of  the  giouping  of  words 
The  teacher  of  elementary  grammar  has  no 
need  to  feel  that  he  has  set  his  mark  too  low 
in  endeavoring  to  bring  his  students  to  an 
intelligent  conception  of  what  is  meant  by  the 
sentence  in  the  study  and  in  the  use  of  the 
English  language  (i  P  K 

Methods  of  Teaching  Grammar  The  prcs- 
ent  tendency  in  the  teaching  of  English  gram- 
mar is  greatly  to  contract  the  instruction, 
both  in  time  and  content,  a  tendency  arising, 
first,  from  the  current,  practice  of  requiring  a 
new  educational  justification  foi  all  subjects 
in  the  curriculum,  and,  secondly,  from  the 
crowding  of  the  curriculum  bv  new  subjects 
In  many  of  the  best  schools  formal  grammar 
occupies  not  more  than  three  lessons  per  week 
for  two  years,  and  in  some  schools  even  less 
time  Many  distinctions  and  classifications, 
such  as  are  referred  to  above,  are  omitted, 
either  as  having  no  practical  value  or  as  being 
without  meaning  to  an  immature  mind  The 
general  value  of  grammai  as  formal  discipline 
is  now  largely  disci  edited  Its  \\orth  to  the 
student  seems  to  he  in  thiee  things  its  occa- 
sional guidance  in  matters  of  incorrect  or 
doubtful  usage,  its  training  in  the  process  of 
thought,  as  cast  in  the  forms  of  the  sentence, 
and  its  assistance  to  the  student  in  the  studv 
of  a  foreign  language  To  these  mav  be  added 
its  tendency  to  arouse  intelligent  interest  in 
language  as  a  subject  worthy  of  intelligent 
attention,  especially  when  some  of  the  historical 
features  have  been  incidentally  introduced  into 
the  study 

The  long-recognized  difficulty  of  teaching 
giammar  successfully  is  due  mainly  to  its 
abstract  nature  \  oung  pupils  do  not  easily 
or  naturally  grasp  grammatical  abstractions, 
hence  the  necessity  for  limiting  the  amount, 
foi  selecting  those  principles  that  are  simplest 
or  nust  necessary,  for  frequent  repetition,  for 
confining  the  work  to  intelligible  sentences,  for 
abundant  drill  and  frequent  icpetitions,  and 
foi  connecting  grammatical  study  as  closely  as 
possible  with  the  pupils'  oral  and  written  use 
of  the  language  Even  under  t  he  best  instruc- 
tion it  is  to  be  expected  that  pupils  will  often 
en,  often  be  confused,  and  generally  forget 
much  that  they  once  knew  rather  well,  for 
abstractions  are  neither  clear  nor  permanent 
in  most  minds 

The  order  of  procedure  in  the  instruction 
has  been  under  much  discussion,  two  general 
plans  being  suggested  from  the  word  to  the 
sentence  (the  oldei,  and  former ly  the  invari- 
able, plan),  and  from  the  sentence  to  the  word 
In  the  former  the  pupils  first  learned  the  pails 
of  speech,  that  is,  noun,  \erb,  etc  ,  vMth  then 
definitions  and  with  01  without  examples  in 
sentences;  that  is,  they  began  with  the  so- 


called  etymology  In  the  second  plan  the 
study  begins  with  the  sentence  (?  c  with  syn- 
tax), considering  first  the  general  subject  and 
general  predicate,  then  viewing  the  sentence 
as  consisting  of  strict  subject  and  strict  predi- 
cate (noun  and  verb),  each  of  them  possibly 
with  or  without  a  modifying  word  or  phrase, 
and  so  proceeding  by  steps  of  analysis  to  the 
ultimate  elements,  /  c  the  words  (see  Bar- 
bo  ur's  The  Teaching  of  English  Grammar,  1901) 
Various  modifications  of  this  second  plan,  in 
combination  with  the  first,  are  now  in  general 
use,  textbooks  and  teachers  differing  mainly 
in  the  stages  at  which  they  introduce  the 
detailed  study  of  the  various  parts  of  speech 
This  plan  makes  it  possible  to  introduce  some 
of  the  simpler  elements  of  grammar  as  early 
as  the  fifth  or  sixth  year  in  connection  with 
the  pupil's  writing,  and  so  to  prepare  him 
gradually  foi  the  more  difficult  study  of  formal 
grammar  in  the  textbook 

A  considerable  amount  of  drill  is  necessary 
in  all  teaching  of  grammar  Hut  certain 
changes  have  been  made  in  the  matter  and 
substance  of  drill  It  is  important  to  proceed 
not  merely  from  the  examples  to  the  principles, 
but  also  from  the  principles  to  the  examples, 
the  pupils  being  required,  for  instance,  not 
merely  to  identify  adjective  clauses  and  adjec- 
tive phrases,  but  to  write  sentences  containing 
these  elements  Parsing,  that  is,  identifying 
the  part  of  speech  of  a  word  and  pointing  out 
its  relations,  has  no  longer  the  large  place  it 
once  had  Its  value  is  doubtful  as  a  means 
to  the  real  function  of  giarnmar,  i  e  the  study 
of  the  sentence,  and  its  propriety  or  even 
possibility  must  often  be  questioned  Then4 
are  many  single  words  that  cannot  be  parsed 
They  miist  be  taken  in  connection  with  other 
words,  as  a  group,  before  their  relation  to  the 
sentence  can  be  indicated  Nor  is  it  permitted 
to  change  the  forms  of  expression  to  bring 
words  under  the  rules  Such  a  change  onh 
makes  a  new  sentence  It  must  furthermore 
be  noted  that  certain  conventional  explana- 
tions of  construction  were  made  before  the 
study  of  English  philology  had  explained  then 
real  origin  An  example  is  the  so-called  "  re- 
tained object  "  with  the  passive  voice,  as  in 
the  sentences  I  wan  qiren  a  book  and  in  the  phrase 
one  bi/  one  Many  instances  could  be  cited  show- 
ing the  disappeaiance  of  inflectional  indications 
of  agreement  or  concord,  and  othei  departures 
from  the  Latinized  conceptions  on  which  oui 
older  English  gi  ammai  s  were  based  (See  ( ioold 
Brown,  Gi  annual  of  Gi  am  matt*,  Introduction  ) 

In  general,  therefore,  teachers  at  home  in 
the  subject  are  inclined  to  doubt,  the  advis- 
ability of  much  "  parsing  "  Drill  in  syntax 
has  come  to  occupy  a  much  more  important, 
place,  and  "  diagraming  "  is  still  in  favor 
as  a  short  and  convenient  way  of  indicating 
relationships  In  the  study  of  both  etymolog\ 
and  syntax  the  old  logical  conception  is  rapidly 
giving  way  before  the  more  scientific  view  of 
137 


GRAMMAR   GRADES 


GRAMMAR   SCHOOL 


English  as  an  idiomatic1  speech  whose  special 
features  are  to  be  explained  only  by  a  knowl- 
edge of  their  origins 

One  important  question  of  method  remains 
to  be  considered  How  far  should  the  study 
be  inductive7  We  proceed  in  the  man\  from 
examples  to  principles  and  definitions,  but 
principles  must  be  reeriforced  by,  and  reinter- 
preted in  terms  of,  examples  Some  of  the 
more  difficult  conceptions,  as  those  of  verb 
phrase,  conjunction,  preposition,  are  best 
taught  almost  exclusively  by  examples 

F  T  B 

References :  — 


HARBOUR,   F    A       The 

(Boston,  1901  ) 
BROWN,  GOOLD      Grammai  of  Grammars 


Teaching  of  English  Grammar. 
(New  York, 


CAKPENTLH,  BAKER,  and  SCOTT  The  Teaching  of  Kng- 
huh  in  the  Elementary  and  the  Secondary  School 
(New  York,  1902  ) 

CHUBB,  P  The  Teaching  of  English  in  the.  Elementary 
and  the  Secondary  School  (New  York,  1902  ) 

LEONARD,  M  H  Grammar  and  ?/&  Reasons  (Now 
York,  1908  ) 

ONIONH,  O  T  An  Advanced  English  Syntax  (London, 
1904  )  In  thi»  Parallel  Grammar  Series 

ROEMER,  J  Principles  of  General  Grammar,  Compiled 
and  Arranged  for  the  Use  of  College?  and  Schools. 
(New  York,  1884  ) 

Teachers  College  Record,  November,  1906  HOYT,  F.  S  , 
The  Place  of  Grammar  in  the  Elementary  Curriculum  , 
and  COAN,  M  S  ,  Historical  English  Grammar  in  the 
High  School,  also  Januar>,  1911  Report  on  the, 
Teaching  of  Technical  Grammar  (New  York  ) 

WATHON,  FOSTER      Beginnings  of  the  Teaching  of  Mod- 

ern Subject*,  in  England      (London,  1909  ) 
See  also  the  introduction  to  the  various  school  gram- 

mars. 

GRAMMAR  GRADES  —The  elementary 
school  normally  covers  eight  years  of  work, 
which  may  be  begun  at  about  the  age  of  six 
years  The  upper  four  vears  of  the  elementary 
school  are  known  as  the  grammar  grades,  as 
the  lower  four  are  called  the  primary  grades 
Sometimes,  because  of  exceptional  administra- 
tive conditions,  the  fifth  year  of  school  may  be 
included  among  the  primary  grades,  as  m  the 
case  where  a  primary  school  building  includes 
the  first  five  years  of  work,  or  where  these  first 
five  years  of  work  are  set  off  because  the 
departmental  system  of  instruction  by  special- 
ized teachers  does  not  cover  more  than  the 
sixth,  seventh,  and  eighth  years  The  gram- 
mar grades,  while  normally  covering  four 
years,  may  be  four  or  eight  in  number,  depend- 
ing upon  whether  or  not  the  graded  system 
provides  for  annual  or,  as  is  the  usual'  case, 
semi-annual  promotions  H  S 

GRAMMAR-HIGH  SCHOOLS  —  A  term 
used  in  the  school  laws  of  California  to  desig- 
nate a  two-year  high  school,  to  which  state 
aid  is  given  Such  schools  represent  the  first 
two  years  of  the  regular  high  school,  and  are 
to  be  established  where  full  four-year  high 
schools  are  not  as  yet  needed  The  term  cor- 
responds in  a  general  way  to  the  term  Town- 
ship High  School,  as  used  m  the  upper  Mis- 


138 


sissippi  Valley  to  designate  short-course  schools 
which  have  not  been  "  accredited  "  or  "  com- 
missioned "  as  full  high  schools.  (See  HK;H 
SCHOOLS,  RURAL  )  E  P  C. 

GRAMMAR  SCHOOL  -  To  write  the  his- 
tory of  grammar  schools  would  be  to  write 
the  history  of  elementary  and  secondary  edu- 
cation from  their  dim  beginnings  in  Hellas  in 
the  fifth  or  sixth  century  B  c  to  1850,  when 
the  greater  number  and  the  chief  of  the  second- 
ary schools  on  both  sides  of  the  Atlantic  were 
still  called  Grammar  Schools  Even  where 
the  title  has  been  dropped  for  that  of  Public, 
School,  Latin  School,  Academy,  Gymnasium, 
High  School,  Lyce*e,  Ginnasio,  these  are  still 
essentially  grammar  schools,  and,  what  is  more, 
the  chief  of  them  still  Greek  Grammar  Schools 
The  term  Grammar  School  (y/m/A/Attrciov) 
simply  meant  a  Letter  School,  a  place  in  which 
letters  (ypa/z/Luxra),  that  is,  spelling  arid  reading, 
were  taught  But  it  has  always  been  found 
that  it  is  impossible  to  teach  even  reading 
properly  without  teaching  much  more,  and  the 
term  grammata  soon  came  to  connote  an  ever- 
widening  circle  of  learning  till  it  became 
identical  with  literature  in  its  widest  sense 
Already  in  the  sixth  century  B  c  ,  the  vases 
show  the  boys  learning  writing  as  well  as 
reading,  and  standing  up  to  say  their  repetition 
of  Homer,  while  in  later  days  they  received 
prizes  for  public  competitions,  not  only  in 
"  rhapsody,"  but  in  successive  stages  of  recita- 
tion of  tragic,  comic,  and  lyric  verse  Natu- 
rally, poets  had  to  be  explained  and  understood 
for  effective  recitation,  and  the  whole  of 
literary  comment,  the  science*  of  grammar,  the 
art  of  scholarship,  criticism,  and  composition 
was  developed  from  the  grammar  school 

Grammar  and  the  grammar  school  were 
developed  at  Alexandria,  where  the  Mace- 
donian variety  of  Doric-speaking  students  of 
Attic  writers  perhaps  required  more  assistance 
from  grammar  proper  The  grammar  school 
was  transplanted  full  grown  to  Rome  Plau- 
tus,  c  210  B  c  ,  used  the  term  in  its  Latin  trans- 
lation of  ludus  literanuK  (For  the  develop- 
ment of  this  school,  ludus  hterarut*,  and  the 
later  rhetoric  schools,  see  ROMAN  EDUCATION; 
QUINTJLIAN;  ENDOWMENTS,  EDUCATIONAL  )  A 
Greek  grammar  school  had  been  set  up  by 
Livius  Andromcus,  a  Greek,  in  272  B  c  At 
Rome  the  early  grammar  schools  were  more 
advanced  than  those  of  Gieeee,  when*  the 
grammar  schools  were  confined  to  literary  ex- 
planation and  criticism,  while  according  to 
Suetonius  the  early  grammar  schoolmasters  at 
Rome  also  taught  rhetoric  and  "  many  of  their 
treatises  include  both  sciences/'  i  e.  grammar 
and  rhetoric  In  later  days  at  Rome,  as  in 
Greece,  the  two  were  separated,  the  grammar 
school  teaching  the*  Inn  s  till  about  fourteen  and 
confining  themselves  to  literary  construction, 
the  rhetoric  school  including  every  study 
which  could  fit  a  youth  to  become  a  good 


GRAMMAR  SCHOOL 


GRAMMAR  SCHOOL 


speaker  Qumtihan,  whose  Institutes  of  Ora- 
tory is  the  only  complete  ancient  educational 
work  which  has  come  down  to  us,  shows  that 
the  grammar  school  had  extended  its  bound- 
aries to  include,  for  instance,  the  teaching  of 
history  and  the  elements  of  philosophy,  leav- 
ing the  rhetoric  school  to  he  more  professionally 
and  professedly  a  "  talking  shop  "  The  gram- 
mar school  and  the  rhetoric  school  were 
ubiquitous  through  the  Roman  Empire  From 
the  end  of  the  first  century  A  D  they  came  to 
be  largely  provided  at  the  public  expense  by 
the  municipalities  or  by  endowments  (see 
ENDOWMENTS,  EDUCATIONAL),  while  the  later 
Emperors,  and  particularly  Gratian  in  376, 
charged  their  maintenance  on  the  fiftcu*  or  the 
rates  and  fixed  the  salaries  payable  When  the 
barbarian  kingdoms  began  to  settle  down,  the 
grammar  schools  became  moie  than  ever 
necessary,  in  a  sense,  for  teaching  Latin  as 
the  foreign  tongue,  in  which  new  nations 
found  their  religion  and  their  law  enshrined 
and  administered  While  the  rhetoric  schools, 
therefore,  disappeared,  the  grammar  schools 
went  on,  and,  so  far  as  the  higher  studies  of 
the  rhetoric  school  were  needed,  they  were 
studied  in  the  grammar  schools,  which  passed 
under  the  control  of  the  bishops  It  is  diffi- 
cult to  say  when  they  ceased  to  be  public 
schools  and  became  episcopal  schools,  if  indeed 
it  is  possible  to  draw  any  such  distinction,  for 
the  bishop  seems  to  have  stepped  into  the 
place  of  the  civil  magistrate  in  respect  to  pub- 
lic older  generally  as  much  as  to  education 
(See  BISHOPS'  SCHOOLS  )  The  eai host  mention 
of  a  school  in  England  distinctly  calls  it,  a 
grammai  school  It  was  when  Hede  (Red 
Hi^t  111,  15)  i elated  how  in  631  Sigbert,  King 
of  the  East  English,  who  had  been  converted 
to  Christianity  when  an  exile  in  France,  desn- 
mg  to  imitate  what  he  had  seen  well  arranged 
there,  set  up  a  school  in  which  boys  might-  bo 
taught  grammar  (httcu*  crudircntut),  and  got 
masters  and  ushers  for  the  purpose  from 
Canterbury  Alcum  would  no  doubt  have 
called  the  school  of  famous  Cathedral  York, 
which  he  describes  a  century  later  (731  to  7SO), 
a  grammar  school  For,  though  its  curriculum 
included  law,  music,  astronomv,  geometry, 
arithmetic,  and  theology,  yet  grammai  and 
rhetoric  arc  put  first,  the  master  industriously 
giving  to  these  the  art  of  the  science  of  gram- 
mai and  pouring  on  those  the  rivers  of  rhetoric, 
while  the  wnteis  on  grammar  from  the  Ver- 
gihan  commentator,  Servius,  to  Pro-bus  and 
Pnscian  bulked  most  largely  in  the  school 
library  At  the  end  of  the  eighth  century 
(c  796),  Alcum  recommended  his  quondam 
pupil,  the  then  archbishop,  to  separate  the 
grammar  school  (qui  libros  legant)  from  the 
song  and  the  writing  schools  (qui  cwitiknac 
iHxcrviatU,  qui  xcmbwidi  studio  depmtentur) 
The  current  custom  for  bishops  to  maintain 
grammar  schools  at  their  sees  was  made  general 
law  by  the  canon  of  Pope  Eugemus  in  826, 


ordering  all  bishops  to  maintain  giammar 
schools  (studw  hteiaium)  in  which  the  principles 
of  the  liberal  arts  should  bo  taught,  an  enact- 
ment repeated  by  Pope  (Irogory  in  a  synod  at 
Rome,  r  1073  It  is  stated  in  Assor's  Life  of 
Alfied  (c.  1001)  that  the  King's  youngest  son 
Ethelward  was  sent,  to  the  grammar  school 
(ludif*  hteianac  dmcipliruie)  with  nearly  all  the 
noble  children  of  the  realm  and  many  \\ho 
were  not  noble,  a  statement  which  is  at  least 
rendered  probable,  and  probably  taken  from 
the  educational  program  sot  forth  by  Alfred 
himself  in  the  introduction  to  his  Translation 
of  (Iregorv's  Pastoral  (1mc  Alfred  (</  r  ) 
desired  that  all  the  young  English  freeman 
should  be  set,  to  learn  to  road  English,  and 
those  who  wanted  to  continue  in  learning  and 
reach  higher  rank  should  learn  Latin  Alfred 
the  Great  (q  v  )  is  credited  with  the  estab- 
lishment of  grammar  schools,  while  ^Elfnc's 
(q  v  )  tiaxon-Latm  Grammar  (c  1005),  being 
excerpts  from  Priscian's  grammar,  purports 
to  bo  a  grammar  as  taught  in  the  school 
of  Etholwold,  Bishop  of  Winchester  So 
too  the  Danish  king,  Canute,  is  credited 
by  his  eleventh-century  biographer  with  found- 
ing public  schools  (publican  sro/us)  to  teach 
boys  grammar  (httens  imbuendos)  In  the 
school  attached  to  the  collegiate  church  of 
Waltham,  founded  by  King  Harold  when  carl, 
grammar  and  Latin  verse-making  were  learnt 
The  earliest  use  of  the  actual  words  "  grammar 
school,"  M'ola  gramatice,  as  distinct  from  its 
Latin  equivalent,  ludus  hterarum,  is  in  a 
charter  of  the  last  half  of  the  twelfth  century, 
in  which  Henry,  Count  of  Eu  and  Lord  of 
Hastings,  confirmed  the  foundation  by  his 
grandfather  Robert,  Count  of  Eu,  who  received 
Hastings  from  the  Conqueror,  of  the  Collegiate 
Church  of  St  Mary  in  Hastings  Castle  and 
the  division  of  its  possessions  into  separate 
prebends  among  the  several  canons  or  pre- 
bendaries, including  u  Ausoher's  prebend  to 
which  belongs  the  keeping  of  the  grammar 
school  (legnnvH  .sro/<  giawaticc),"  while  "  to 
Wyming's  prebend  "  pertains  "  the  keeping  ot 
the  Song  School  (leginwn  scoh  (antu\}  "  It  is 
not  clear  whether  Count  Henry  is  quoting  the 
words  of  Count  Robert  or  translating  them 
into  the  language  of  his  o\vn  time  Hut  it  can 
hardly  be  doubted  that  the  Warwick  School, 
Gloucester  School,  Pontofract  School,  Thctford 
School,  St  Paul's  School,  St  Alban's  School, 
Huntingdon  School,  Dunstablo  School,  and 
Reading  School,  —  to  mention  some  which  are 
so  called  in  extant  grants  of  the  latter  part  of 
the  eleventh  and  first  part  of  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury —  would  have  meant  the  grammar  schools 
of  those  places,  just  as  in  the  present  century 
they  would  bear  the  same  meaning,  though  for 
the  most  part  the  masters  aspire  to  drop  the 
qualifying  epithet  and  call  them  by  the  place 
name  £o  ul  court  In  the  thirteenth  to  the  nine- 
teenth centuries  inclusive  it  was  thought  more 
honorable  to  insert  the  qualifying  epithet  of 


13d 


GRAMMAR  SCHOOL 


GRAMMAR  SCHOOL 


"  grammar  "  school  This  became  necessary 
in  the  thirteenth  century  to  distinguish  gram- 
mar schools  from  the  schools  of  the  higher 
faculties  at  the  universities,  and  the  Theo- 
logical Schools,  to  which  the  schoolmasters  of 
cathedral  and  collegiate  church  grammar 
schools,  when  they  changed  their  name  to  the 
less  known  and  intelligible,  and  therefore  more 
magnificent  title  of  Chancellor  (q  v  ),  confined 
their  ministrations  A  notable  illustration  of 
the  way  in  which  the  Cambridge  School  was 
shorn  of  its  prestige  and  glory  by  the  side  of  the 
university  is  to  be  found  m  the  order  made  by 
the  diocesan  of  Cambridge,  the  Bishop  of  Ely, 
in  1276  From  this  it  appears  that  the  Master 
of  Glomery  (q  v  )  had  still  jurisdiction  to  hold 
legal  pleas  in  which  grammar  scholars  were 
concerned,  as  the  Chancclloi  of  the  University 
had  in  those  to  which  university  students  wore 
parties  He  too  had  a  bedell  or  beadle  to  bear 
a  mace  before  him,  not  only  honors  cau^a,  but 
also  as  the  physical  implement  with  which  to 
enforce  his  jurisdiction,  just  as  the  Chancellor 
had,  who  was  in  fact  only  a  highei  school- 
mastei  Similarly  the  Canterbury  grammar 
schoolmaster  in  the  years  1310  to  1327  exercised 
jurisdiction  in  cases  between  Ins  scholars  and 
the  laity,  enforcing  by  excommunication  the 
sentences  he  imposed  as  judge  of  his  court, 
in  school,  sometimes  expressing  his  acts  as 
"  done  in  Canterbury  school,"  sometimes  "  in 
Canterbury  Grammar  School  "  In  London, 
what  was  called  in  1138  the  "  School  of  the 
Arches/'  or  St  Mary-le-Bow,  appears  in  1300 
on  the  appointment  of  a  master  as  "  the  Gram- 
mar School  of  the  Church  of  St  Mary-le- 
Bow  or  of  the  Arches  "  (See  ARCHES,  SCHOOL 
OF  THE  )  So  at